Charles Nordhoff - "The Communistic Societies of the United States"

Emile Zola - "Germinal"

Harriet S. Caswell - "Stories and Sketches"

J. Endell Tyler - "Henry of Monmouth, Volume 1"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Directions for Cookery, in its Various Branches

E >> Eliza Leslie >> Directions for Cookery, in its Various Branches




In putting away sweetmeats, it is best to place them in small
jars, as the more frequently they are exposed to the air by
opening the more danger there is of their spoiling. The best
vessels for this purpose are white queen's-ware pots, or glass
jars. For jellies, jams, and for small fruit, common glass
tumblers are very convenient, and may be covered simply with
double tissue-paper, cut exactly to fit the inside of the top of
the glass, laid lightly on the sweetmeat, and pressed down all
round with the finger. This covering, if closely and nicely
fitted, will be found to keep them perfectly well, and as it
adheres so closely as to form a complete coat over the top, it is
better for jellies or jams than writing-paper dipped in brandy,
which is always somewhat shrivelled by the liquor with which it
has been saturated.

If you find that your sweetmeats have become dry and candied, you
may liquefy them again by setting the jars in water and making it
boil round them.

In preserving fruit whole, it is best to put it first in a thin
syrup. If boiled in a thick syrup at the beginning, the juice will
be drawn out so as to shrink the fruit.

It is better to boil it but a short time at once, and then to take
it out and let it get cold, afterwards returning it to the syrup,
than to keep it boiling; too long at a time, which will cause it
to break and lose its shape.

Preserving kettles should be rather broad than deep, for the fruit
cannot be done equally if it is too much heaped. They should all
have covers belonging to them, to put on after the scum has done
rising that the flavour of the fruit may be kept in with the
steam.

A perforated skimmer pierced all through with holes is a very
necessary utensil in making sweetmeats.

The water used for melting the sugar should be very clear; spring
or pump water is best, but if you are obliged to use river water,
let it first be filtered. Any turbidness or impurity in the water
will injure the clearness of the sweetmeats.

If sweetmeats ferment in the jars, boil them over again with
additional sugar.


CLARIFIED SUGAR SYRUP.

Take eight pounds of the best double-refined loaf-sugar, and break
it up or powder it. Have ready the whites of two eggs, beaten to a
strong froth. Stir the white of egg gradually into two quarts of
very clear spring or pump water. Put the sugar into a porcelain
kettle, and mix with it the water and white of egg. While the
sugar is melting, stir it frequently; and when it is entirely
dissolved, put the kettle over a moderate fire, and let it boil,
carefully taking off the scum as it comes to the top, and pouring
in a little cold water when you find the syrup rising so as to run
over the edge of the kettle. It will be well when it first boils
hard to pour in half a pint of cold water to keep down the bubbles
so that the scum may appear, and be easily removed. You must not
however boil it to candy height, so that the bubbles will look
like hard pearls, and the syrup will harden in the spoon and hang
from it in strings; for though very thick and clear it must
continue liquid. When it is done, let it stand till it gets quite
cold; and if you do not want it for immediate use, put it into
bottles and seal the corks.

When you wish to use this syrup for preserving, you have only to
put the fruit into it, and boil it till tender and clear, but not
till it breaks. Large fruit that is done whole, should first be
boiled tender in a very thin syrup that it may not shrink. Small
fruit, such as raspberries, strawberries, grapes, currants,
gooseberries, &c. may, if perfectly ripe, be put raw into strong
cold sugar syrup; they will thus retain their form and colour, and
then freshness and natural taste. They must be put into small
glass jars, and kept well covered with the syrup. This, however,
is an experiment which sometimes fails, and had best be tried on a
scale, or only for immediate use.


TO PRESERVE GINGER.

Take root of green ginger, and pare it neatly with a sharp knife,
throwing it into a pan of cold water as you pare it. Then boil it
till tender all through, changing the water three times. Each time
put on the ginger is quite cold water to lake out the excessive
heat. When it is perfectly tender, throw it again into a pan of
cold water, and let it lie an hour or more; this will make it
crisp. In the mean time prepare the syrup. For every six pounds of
ginger root, clarify seven pounds of the best double-refined loaf-sugar.
Break up the sugar, put it into a preserving kettle, and
melt it in spring or pump water, (into which you have stirred
gradually the beaten white of two eggs,) allowing a pint of water
to each pound of sugar. Boil and skim it well. Then let the syrup
stand till it is cold; and having drained the ginger, pour the
syrup over it, cover it, and do not disturb it for two days. Then,
having poured it from the ginger, boil the syrup over again. As
soon as it is cold, pour it again on the ginger, and let it stand
at least three days. Afterwards boil the syrup again, and pour it
_hot_ over the ginger. Proceed in this manner till you find
that the syrup has thoroughly penetrated the ginger, (which you
may ascertain by its taste and appearance when you cut a piece
off,) and till the syrup becomes very thick and rich. Then put it
all into jars, and cover it closely.

If you put the syrup hot to the ginger at first, it will shrink
and shrivel. After the first time, you have only to boil and
reboil the syrup; as it is not probable that it will require any
further clarifying if carefully skimmed. It will be greatly
improved by adding some lemon-juice at the close of the last
boiling.


TO PRESERVE CITRONS.

Pare off the outer skin of some fine citrons, and cut them into
quarters. Take out the middle. You may divide each quarter into
several pieces. Lay them for four or five hours in salt and water.
Take them out, and then soak them in spring or pump water
(changing it frequently) till all the saltness is extracted, and
till the last water tastes perfectly fresh. Boil a small lump of
alum, and scald them in the alum-water. It must be very weak, or
it will communicate an unpleasant taste to the citrons; a lump the
size of a hickory nut will suffice for six pounds. Afterwards
simmer them two hours with layers of green vine leaves. Then make
a syrup, allowing a pint of water to each pound of loaf-sugar;
boil and skim it well. When it is quite clear, put in the citrons,
and boil them slowly, till they are so soft that a straw will
pierce through them without breaking. Afterwards put them into a
large dish, and set them in the sun to harden.

Prepare some lemons, by paring off the yellow rind very thin, and
cutting it into slips of uniform size and shape. Lay the lemon-rind
in scalding water, to extract the bitterness. Then take the
pared lemons, cut them into quarters, measure a half pint of water
to each lemon, and boil them to a mash. Strain the boiled lemon
through a sieve, and to each pint of liquid allow a pound of the
best double-refined loaf-sugar, for the second syrup. Melt the
sugar in the liquid, and stir into it gradually some beaten white
of egg; allowing one white to four pounds of sugar. Then set it
over the fire; put the lemon-peel into the syrup, and let it boil
in it till quite soft. Put the citrons cold into a glass jar, and
pour the hot syrup over them. Let the lemon remain with the
citrons, as it will improve their flavour.

If you wish the citrons to be candied, boil down the second syrup
to candy height, (that is, till it hangs in strings from the
spoon,) and pour it over the citrons. Keep them well covered. You
may, if you choose, after you take the citrons from the alum-water,
give them a boil in very weak ginger tea, made of the roots
of green ginger if you can procure it; if not, of race ginger.
Powdered ginger will not do at all. This ginger tea will
completely eradicate any remaining taste of the salt or the alum.
Afterwards cover the sides and bottom of the pan with vine leaves,
put a layer of leaves between each layer of citron, and cover the
top with leaves. Simmer the citrons in this two hours to green
them.

In the same manner you may preserve water-melon rind, or the rind
of cantelopes. Cut these rinds into stars, diamonds, crescents,
circles, or into any fanciful shape you choose. Be sure to pare
off the outside skin before you put the rinds into the salt and
water.

Pumpkin cut into slips, may be preserved according to the above
receipt.


CANTELOPES OR MUSK-MELONS.

Take very small cantelopes before they are ripe. Shave a thin
paring off the whole outside. Cut out a small piece or plug about
an inch square, and through it extract all the seeds, &c. from the
middle. Then, return the plugs to the hole from whence you took
them, and secure them with a needle and thread, or by tying a
small string round the cantelope.

Lay the cantelopes for four or five hours in salt and water. Then
put them into spring water to extract the salt, changing the water
till you find it salt no longer. Scald them in weak alum-water.
Make a syrup in the proportion of a pint of water to a pound of
loaf-sugar, and boil the cantelopes in it till a straw will go
through them. Then take them out, and set them in the sun to
harden.

Prepare some fine ripe oranges, paring off the yellow rind very
thin, and cutting it into slips, and then laying it in scalding
water to extract the bitterness. Cut the oranges into pieces;
allow a pint of water to each orange, and boil them to a pulp.
Afterwards strain them, and allow to each pint of the liquid, a
pound of the best loaf-sugar, and stir in a little beaten white of
egg; one white to four pounds of sugar. This is for the second
syrup. Boil the peel in it, skimming it well. When the peel is
soft, take it all out; for if left among the cantelopes, it will
communicate to it too strong a taste of the orange.

Put the cantelopes into your jars, and pour over them the hot
syrup. Cover them closely, and keep them in a dry cool place.

Large cantelopes may be prepared for preserving (after you have
taken off the outer rind) by cutting them into pieces according to
the natural divisions with which they are fluted. This receipt for
preserving cantelopes whole, will do very well for green lemons or
limes, substituting lemon-peel and lemon-juice for that of oranges
in the second syrup.

You may use some of the first syrup to boil up the pulp of the
orange or lemons that has been left. It will make a sort of
marmalade, that is very good for colds.


PRESERVED WATER-MELON RIND.

Having pared off the green skin, cut the rind of a water-melon
into pieces of any shape you please; stars, diamonds, circles,
crescents or leaves, using for the purpose a sharp penknife. Weigh
the pieces, and allow to each pound a pound and a halt of loaf
sugar. Set the sugar aside, and put the pieces of melon-rind into
a preserving kettle, the bottom and sides of which you, have lined
with green vine leaves. Put a layer of vine leaves between each,
layer of melon-rind, and cover the top with leaves. Disperse among
the pieces some very small bits of alum, each about the bigness of
a grain of corn, and allowing one bit to every pound of the melon-rind.
Pour in just water enough to cover the whole, and place a
thick double cloth (or some other covering) over the top of the
kettle to keep in the steam, which will improve the greening. Let
it simmer (but not boil) for two hours. Then take out the pieces
of melon-rind and spread them on dishes to cool. Afterwards if you
find that they taste of the alum, simmer them in very weak ginger
tea for about three hours. Then proceed to make your syrup. Melt
the sugar in clear spring or pump water, allowing a pint of water
to a pound and a half of sugar, and mixing in with it some white
of egg beaten to a stiff froth. The white of one egg will be
enough for four pounds of sugar. Boil and skim it; and when the
scum ceases to rise, put in the melon-rind, and let it simmer an
hour. Take it out and spread it to cool on dishes return it to the
syrup, and simmer it another hour. After this take it out, and put
it into a tureen. Boil up the syrup again, and pour it over the
melon-rind. Cover it, and let it stand all night. Next morning
give the syrup another boil; adding to It some lemon-juice,
allowing the juice of one lemon to a quart of the syrup. When you
find it so thick as to hang in a drop on the point of the spoon,
it is sufficiently done. Then put the rind into glass jars, pour
in the syrup, and secure the sweetmeats closely from the air with
paper dipped in brandy, and a leather outer cover.

This, if carefully done and well greened, is a very nice
sweetmeat, and may be used to ornament the top of creams, jellies,
jams, &c. laying it round in rings or wreaths.

Citrons may be preserved green in the same manner, first paring
off the outer skin and cutting them into quarters. Also green
limes.


PRESERVED PEPPERS.

For this purpose take the small round peppers while they are
green. With a sharp penknife extract the seeds and cores; and then
put the outsides into a kettle with vine leaves, and a little alum
to give them firmness, and assist in keeping them green. Proceed
precisely as directed for the water-melon rind, in the above
receipt.


PUMPKIN CHIPS.

It is best to defer making this sweetmeat (which will be found
very fine) till late in the season when lemons are ripe and are to
be had in plenty. Pumpkins (as they keep well) can generally be
procured at any time through the winter.

Take a fine pumpkin, of a rich deep colour, pare off the outer
rind; remove the seeds; and having sliced the best part, cut it
into chips of equal size, and about as thick as a half dollar.
They should be in long narrow pieces, two inches in breadth, and
six in length. It is best to prepare the pumpkin the day before;
and having weighed the chips, allow to each pound of them a pound
of the best loaf-sugar. You must have several dozen of fine ripe
lemons, sufficient to furnish a jill of lemon-juice to each pound
of pumpkin. Having rolled them under your hand on a table, to make
them yield as much juice as possible, pare off the yellow rind and
put it away for some other purpose. Then having cut the lemons,
squeeze out all the juice into a pitcher. Lay the pumpkin chips in
a large pan or tureen, strewing the sugar among them. Then having
measured the lemon-juice in a wine-glass, (two common wine-glasses
making one jill,) pour it over the pumpkin and sugar, cover the
vessel, and let it stand all night.

Next day transfer the pumpkin, sugar, and lemon-juice to n
preserving kettle, and boil it slowly three quarters of an hour,
or till the pumpkin becomes all through tender, crisp, and
transparent; but it must not be over the fire long enough to break
and lose its form. You must skim it thoroughly. Some very small
pieces of the lemon-paring may be boiled with it. When you think
it is done, take up the pumpkin chips in a perforated skimmer that
the syrup may drain through the holes back into the kettle. Spread
the chips to cool on large dishes, and pass the syrup through a
flannel bag that has been first dipped in hot water. When the
chips are cold, put them into glass jars or tumblers, pour in the
syrup, and lay on the top white paper dipped in brandy. Then tie
up the jars with leather, or with covers of thick white paper.

If you find that when cold the chips are not perfectly clear,
crisp, and tender, give them another boil in the syrup before you
put them up.

This, if well made, is a handsome and excellent sweetmeat It need
not be eaten with cream, the syrup being so delicious as to
require nothing to improve it. Shells of puff-paste first baked
empty, and then filled with, pumpkin chips, will be found very
nice.

Musk-melon chips may be done in the same manner.


TO PRESERVE PINE-APPLES.

Take fine large pine-apples; pare them, and cut off a small round
piece from the bottom, of each; let the freshest and best of the
top leaves remain on. Have ready on a slow fire, a large
preserving kettle with a thin syrup barely sufficient to cover the
fruit. In making this syrup allow a pound of fine loaf-sugar to
every quart of water, and half the white of a beaten egg; all to
be mixed before it goes on the fire. Then boil and skim it, and
when the scum ceases to rise, put in the pine-apples, and simmer
them slowly an hour. Then take them out to cool, cover them
carefully and pat them away till next day; saving the syrup in
another vessel. Next day, put them into the same syrup, and simmer
them again an hour. On the third day, repeat the process. The
fourth day, make a strong fresh syrup, allowing but a pint of
water to each pound of sugar, and to every three pounds the beaten
white of one egg. When this syrup has boiled, and is completely
skimmed, put in the pine-apples, and simmer them half an hour.
Then take them out to cool, and set them aside till next morning.
Boil them again, half an hour in the same syrup, and repeat this
for seven or eight days, or till you can pierce through the pine-apple
with a straw from a corn-broom. At the last of these
boilings enrich the syrup by allowing to each pound of sugar a
quarter of a pound more; and, having boiled and skimmed it, put in
the pine apples for half an hour. Then take them out, and when
quite cold put each into a separate glass jar, and fill up with
the syrup.

Pine apples may be preserved in slices by a very simple process.
Pare them, and out them into round pieces near an inch thick, and
take out the core from the centre of each slice. Allow a pound of
loaf-sugar to every pound of the sliced pine-apple. Powder the
sugar, and strew it in layers between the slices of pine-apple.
Cover it and let it set all night. Next morning measure some clear
spring or pump water, allowing half a pint to each pound of sugar.
Beat some white of egg, (one white to four pounds of sugar,) and
when it is a very stiff froth, stir it gradually into the water.
Then mix with it the pine-apple and sugar, and put the whole into
a preserving kettle. Boil and skim it well, till the pine-apple is
tender and bright all through. Then take it out, and when cold,
put it up in wide-mouthed glass jars, or in large tumblers.


TO PREPARE FRESH PINE-APPLES.

Cut off the top and bottom and pare off the rind. Then cut the
pine-apples in round slices half an inch thick, and put them into
a deep dish, sprinkling every slice with powdered loaf-sugar.
Cover them, and let them lie in the sugar for an hour or two,
before they are to be eaten.


PRESERVED LEMONS.

Take large fine ripe lemons, that have no blemishes. Choose those
with thin, smooth rinds. With a sharp, knife scoop a hole in the
stalk end of each, large enough to admit the handle of a tea-spoon.
This hole is to enable the syrup to penetrate the inside of
the lemons. Put them into a preserving kettle with clear water,
and boil them gently till you find them tender, keeping the kettle
uncovered. Then take them oat, drain, and cool them, and put them
into a small tub. Prepare a thin syrup of a pound of loaf-sugar to
a quart of water. When you have boiled and skimmed it, pour it
over the lemons and cover them. Let them stand in the syrup till
next day. Then poor the syrup from the lemons, and spread them on
a large dish. Boil it a quarter of an hour, and pour it over them
again, having first returned them to the tub. Cover them, and let
them again stand till next day, when you must again boil the syrup
and pour it over them. Repeat this process every day till you find
that the lemons are quite clear, and that the syrup has penetrated
them thoroughly. If you find the syrup becoming too weak, add a
little more sugar to it. Finally, make a strong syrup in the
proportion of half a pint of water to a pound of sugar, adding a
jill of raw lemon-juice squeezed from fresh lemons, and allowing
to every four pounds of sugar the beaten white of an egg. Mix all
well together in the kettle. Boil and skim it, and when the scum
ceases to rise, pour the syrup boiling hot over the lemons; and
covering them closely, let them stand undisturbed for four days.
Then look at them, and if you find that they have not sucked in
enough of the syrup to make the inside very sweet, boil them
gently in the syrup for a quarter of an hour. When they are cold,
put them up in glass jars.

You may green lemons by burying them in a kettle of vine leaves
when you give them the first boiling in the clear water.

Limes may be preserved by this receipt; also oranges.

To prepare fresh oranges for eating, peel and cut them in round
slices and remove the seeds. Strew powdered loaf-sugar over them.
Cover them and let them stand an hour before they are eaten.


ORANGE MARMALADE.

Take fine large ripe oranges, with thin deep-coloured skins. Weigh
them, and allow to each pound of oranges a pound of loaf-sugar.
Pare off the yellow outside of the rind from half the oranges as
thin as possible; and putting it into a pan with plenty of cold
water, cover it closely (placing a double cloth beneath the tin
cover) to keep in the steam, and boil it slowly till it is so soft
that the head of a pin will pierce it. In the mean time grate the
rind from the remaining oranges, and put it aside; quarter the
oranges, and take out all the pulp and the juice; removing the
seeds and core. Put the sugar into a preserving kettle, with a
half pint of clear water to each pound, and mix it with some
beaten white of egg, allowing one white of egg, to every four
pounds of sugar. When the sugar is all dissolved, put it on the
fire, and boil and skim it till it is quite clear and thick. Next
take the boiled parings, and cut them into very small pieces, not
more than, half an inch long; put them into the sugar, and boil
them in it ten minutes. Then put in the pulp and juice of the
oranges, and the grated rind, (which will much improve the
colour,) and boil all together for about twenty minutes, till it
is a transparent mass. When cold, pot it up in glass jars, laying
brandy paper on the top.

Lemon marmalade may be made in a similar manner, but you must
allow a pound and a half of sugar to each pound of lemons.


ORANGE JELLY.

Take fourteen large ripe oranges, and grate the yellow rind from
seven of them. Dissolve an ounce of isinglass in as much warm
water as will cover it. Mix the juice with a pound of loaf-sugar
broken up, and add the grated, rind and the isinglass. Put it into
a porcelain pan over hot coals and stir it till it boils. Then,
skim it well. Boil it ten minutes, and strain it (but do not
squeeze it) through a jelly-bag till it is quite clear. Put it
into a mould to congeal, and when you want to turn it out dip the
mould into lukewarm water. Or you may put it into glasses at
once.

You must have a pint of juice to a pound of sugar.

A few grains of saffron boiled with the jelly will improve the
colour without affecting the taste.


PRESERVED PEACHES.

Take large juicy ripe peaches; free-stones are the best, as they
have a finer flavour than the cling-stones, and are much more
manageable both to preserve, and to eat. Pare them, and cut them
in half, or in quarters, leaving out the stones, the half of which
you must save. To every pound of the peaches allow a pound of
loaf-sugar. Powder the sugar, and strew it among your peaches.
Cover them and let them stand all night. Crack half the peach-stones,
break them up, put them into a small sauce-pan and boil
them slowly in as much water as will cover them. Then when the
water is well flavoured with the peach-kernels, strain them out,
and set the water aside. Take care not to use too much of the
kernel-water; a very little will suffice. Put the peaches into a
preserving kettle, and boil them in their juice over a quick fire;
(adding the kernel-water,) and skimming them all the time. When
they are quite clear, which should be in half an hour, take them
off, and put them into a tureen. Boil the syrup five minutes
longer, and pour it hot over the peaches. When they are cool, put
them into glass jars, and tie them up with paper dipped in brandy
laid next to them.

Apricots, nectarines, and large plums maybe preserved in the same
manner.


PEACHES FOR COMMON USE.

Take ripe free-stone peaches; pare, stone, and quarter them. To
six pounds of the cut peaches allow three pounds of the best brown
sugar. Strew the sugar among the peaches, and set them away. Next
morning add a handful of peach leaves, put the whole into a
preserving kettle, and boil it slowly about an hour and three
quarters, or two hours, skimming it well. When cold, put it up in
jars and keep it for pies, or for any common purpose.


BRANDY PEACHES.

Take large white or yellow free-stone peaches, the finest you can
procure. They must not be too ripe. Rub off the down with a
flannel, score them down the seam with a large needle, and prick
every peach to the stone in several places. Scald them with
boiling water, and let them remain in the water till it becomes
cold, keeping them well covered. Repeat the scalding three times:
it is to make them white. Then wipe them, and spread them on a
soft table-cloth, covering them over with several folds. Let them
remain in the cloth to dry. Afterwards put them into a tureen, or
a large jar, and pour on as much white French brandy as will cover
them well. Carefully keep the air from them, and let them remain
in the brandy for a week. Then make a syrup in the usual manner,
allowing to each pound of peaches a pound of loaf-sugar and half a
pint of water mixed with a very little beaten white of egg; one
white to three or four pounds of sugar.

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