Frederic Bastiat - "Sophisms of the Protectionists"

Henry Woodcock - "The Hero of the Humber"

Wyn Roosevelt - "Frontier Boys in Frisco"

Moliere (Poquelin) - "The Shopkeeper Turned Gentleman"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Elements of Structural and Systematic Botany

D >> Douglas Houghton Campbell >> Elements of Structural and Systematic Botany




The ground tissue is composed, as in the leaves we have studied, of
chlorophyll-bearing, loose cells, rather more compact upon the upper
side. (In the majority of dicotyledons the upper surface of the
leaves is nearly or quite destitute of breathing pores, and the
cells of the ground tissue below the upper epidermis are closely
packed, forming what is called the "palisade-parenchyma" of the
leaf.)

[Illustration: FIG. 95.--_A-D_, successive stages in the development
of the flower of _Capsella_, x 50. _A_, surface view. _B-D_, optical
sections. _s_, sepals, _p_, petals. _an._ stamens. _gy._ pistil. _E_,
cross-section of the young anther, x 180. _sp._ spore mother cells.
_F_, cross-section of full-grown anther. _sp._ pollen spores, x 50.
_F'_, four young pollen spores, x 300. _F"_, pollen spores germinating
upon the stigma, x 300. _pt._ pollen tube. _G_, young pistil in
optical section, x 25. H, cross-section of a somewhat older one. _ov._
ovules. _I-L_, development of the ovule. _sp._ embryo sac
(macrospore). _I-K_, x 150. _L_, x 50. _M_, embryo sac of a full-grown
ovule, x 150. _Sy._ _Synergidae_. _o_, egg cell. _n_, endosperm
nucleus. _ant._ antipodal cells. _N-Q_, development of the embryo,
x 150. _sus._ suspensor.]

The shepherd's-purse is an admirable plant for the study of the
development of the flower which is much the same in other
angiosperms. To study this, it is only necessary to teaze out, in a
drop of water, the tip of a raceme, and putting on a cover glass,
examine with a power of from fifty to a hundred diameters. In the
older stages it is best to treat with potash, which will render the
young flowers quite transparent. The young flower (Fig. 95, _A_) is
at first a little protuberance composed of perfectly similar small
cells filled with dense protoplasm. The first of the floral leaves
to appear are the sepals which very early arise as four little buds
surrounding the young flower axis (Fig. 95, _A_, _B_). The stamens
(_C_, _an._) next appear, being at first entirely similar to the
young sepals. The petals do not appear until the other parts of the
flower have reached some size, and the first tracheary tissue
appears in the fibro-vascular bundle of the flower stalk (_D_). The
carpels are more or less united from the first, and form at first a
sort of shallow cup with the edges turned in (_D_, _gy._). This cup
rapidly elongates, and the cavity enlarges, becoming completely
closed at the top where the short style and stigma develop. The
ovules arise in two lines on the inner face of each carpel, and the
tissue which bears them (placenta) grows out into the cavity of the
ovary until the two placentae meet in the middle and form a partition
completely across the ovary (Fig. 95, _H_).

The stamens soon show the differentiation into filament and anther,
but the former remains very short until immediately before the
flowers are ready to open. The anther develops four sporangia
(pollen sacs), the process being very similar to that in such
pteridophytes as the club mosses. Each sporangium (Fig. _E_, _F_)
contains a central mass of spore mother cells, and a wall of three
layers of cells. The spore mother cells finally separate, and the
inner layer of the wall cells becomes absorbed much as we saw in
the fern, and the mass of mother cells thus floats free in the
cavity of the sporangium. Each one now divides in precisely the same
way as in the ferns and gymnosperms, into four pollen spores. The
anther opens as described for _Erythronium_.

By carefully picking to pieces the young ovaries, ovules in all
stages of development may be found, and on account of their small
size and transparency, show beautifully their structure. Being
perfectly transparent, it is only necessary to mount them in water
and cover.

The young ovule (_I_, _J_) consists of a central, elongated body
(nucellus), having a single layer of cells enclosing a large central
cell (the macrospore or embryo sac) (_sp._). The base of the
nucellus is surrounded by two circular ridges (i, ii) of which the
inner is at first higher than the outer one, but later (_K_, _L_),
the latter grows up above it and completely conceals it as well as
the nucellus. One side of the ovule grows much faster than the
other, so that it is completely bent upon itself, and the opening
between the integuments is brought close to the base of the ovule
(Fig. 95, _L_). This opening is called the "micropyle," and allows
the pollen tube to enter.

The full-grown embryo sac shows the same structure as that already
described in _Monotropa_ (page 276), but as the walls of the
full-grown ovule are thicker here, its structure is rather difficult
to make out. The ripe stigma is covered with little papillae
(Fig. 95, _F_) that hold the pollen spores which may be found here
sending out the pollen tube. By carefully opening the ovary and
slightly crushing it in a drop of water, the pollen tube may
sometimes be seen growing along the stalk of the ovule until it
reaches and enters the micropyle.

To study the embryo a series of young fruits should be selected, and
the ovules carefully dissected out and mounted in water, to which a
little caustic potash has been added. The ovule will be thus
rendered transparent, and by pressing gently on the cover glass with
a needle so as to flatten the ovule slightly, there is usually no
trouble in seeing the embryo lying in the upper part of the embryo
sac, and by pressing more firmly it can often be forced out upon the
slide. The potash should now be removed as completely as possible
with blotting paper, and pure water run under the cover glass.

The fertilized egg cell first secretes a membrane, and then divides
into a row of cells (_N_) of which the one nearest the micropyle is
often much enlarged. The cell at the other end next enlarges and
becomes divided by walls at right angles to each other into eight
cells. This globular mass of cells, together with the cell next to
it, is the embryo plant, the row of cells to which it is attached
taking no further part in the process, and being known as the
"suspensor." Later the embryo becomes indented above and forms two
lobes (_Q_), which are the beginnings of the cotyledons. The first
root and the stem arise from the cells next the suspensor.




CHAPTER XVIII.

CLASSIFICATION OF DICOTYLEDONS.


DIVISION I.--_Choripetalae_.

Nearly all of the dicotyledons may be placed in one of two great
divisions distinguished by the character of the petals. In the first
group, called _Choripetalae_, the petals are separate, or in some
degenerate forms entirely absent. As familiar examples of this group,
we may select the buttercup, rose, pink, and many others.

The second group (_Sympetalae_ or _Gamopetalae_) comprises those
dicotyledons whose flowers have the petals more or less completely
united into a tube. The honeysuckles, mints, huckleberry, lilac, etc.,
are familiar representatives of the _Sympetalae_, which includes the
highest of all plants.

[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Iuliflorae. _A_, male; _B_, female
inflorescence of a willow, _Salix_ (_Amentaceae_), x 1/2. _C_, a single
male flower, x 2. _D_, a female flower, x 2. _E_, cross-section of the
ovary, x 8. _F_, an opening fruit. _G_, single seed with its hairy
appendage, x 2.]

The _Choripetalae_ may be divided into six groups, including twenty-two
orders. The first group is called _Iuliflorae_, and contains numerous,
familiar plants, mostly trees. In these plants, the flowers are small
and inconspicuous, and usually crowded into dense catkins, as in
willows (Fig. 96) and poplars, or in spikes or heads, as in the
lizard-tail (Fig. 97, _G_), or hop (Fig. 97, _I_). The individual
flowers are very small and simple in structure, being often reduced to
the gynoecium or andraecium, carpels and stamens being almost always in
separate flowers. The outer leaves of the flower (sepals and petals)
are either entirely wanting or much reduced, and never differentiated
into calyx and corolla.

[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Types of _Iuliflorae_. _A_, branch of hazel,
_Corylus_ (_Cupuliferae_), x 1. [Male], male; [Female], female
inflorescence. _B_, a single male flower, x 3. _C_, section of the
ovary of a female flower, x 25. _D_, acorn of red oak, _Quercus_
(_Cupuliferae_), x 1/2. _E_, seed of white birch, _Betula_ (_Betulaceae_),
x 3. _F_, fruit of horn-bean, _Carpinus_ (_Cupuliferae_), x 1. G,
lizard-tail, _Saururus_ (_Saurureae_), x 1/4. _H_, a single flower, x 2.
_I_, female inflorescence of the hop, _Humulus_ (_Cannabineae_), x 1.
_J_, a single scale with two flowers, x 1. _K_, a male flower of a
nettle, _Urtica_ (_Urticaceae_), x 5.]

In the willows (Fig. 96) the stamens are bright-colored, so that the
flowers are quite showy, and attract numerous insects which visit them
for pollen and nectar, and serve to carry the pollen to the pistillate
flowers, thus insuring their fertilization. In the majority of the
group, however, the flowers are wind-fertilized. An excellent example
of this is seen in the common hazel (Fig. 97, _A_). The male flowers
are produced in great numbers in drooping catkins at the ends of the
branches, shedding the pollen in early spring before the leaves
unfold. The female flowers are produced on the same branches, but
lower down, and in much smaller numbers. The stigmas are long, and
covered with minute hairs that catch the pollen which is shaken out
in clouds every time the plant is shaken by the wind, and falls in a
shower over the stigmas. A similar arrangement is seen in the oaks,
hickories, and walnuts.

There are three orders of the _Iuliflorae_: _Amentaceae_, _Piperineae_,
and _Urticinae_. The first contains the birches (_Betulaceae_); oaks,
beeches, hazels, etc. (_Cupuliferae_); walnuts and hickories
(_Juglandeae_); willows and poplars (_Salicaceae_). They are all trees
or shrubs; the fruit is often a nut, and the embryo is very large,
completely filling it.

The _Piperineae_ are mostly tropical plants, and include the pepper
plant (_Piper_), as well as other plants with similar properties. Of
our native forms, the only common one is the lizard-tail (_Saururus_),
not uncommon in swampy ground. In these plants, the calyx and corolla
are entirely absent, but the flowers have both carpels and stamens
(Fig. 97, _H_).

The _Urticinae_ include, among our common plants, the nettle family
(_Urticaceae_); plane family (_Plataneae_), represented by the sycamore
or buttonwood (_Platanus_); the hemp family (_Cannabineae_); and the
elm family (_Ulmaceae_). The flowers usually have a calyx, and may
have only stamens or carpels, or both. Sometimes the part of the stem
bearing the flowers may become enlarged and juicy, forming a
fruit-like structure. Well-known examples of this are the fig and
mulberry.

The second group of the _Choripetalae_ is called _Centrospermae_, and
includes but a single order comprising seven families, all of which,
except one (_Nyctagineae_), are represented by numerous native species.
The latter comprises mostly tropical plants, and is represented in our
gardens by the showy "four-o'clock" (_Mirabilis_). In this plant, as
in most of the order, the corolla is absent, but here the calyx is
large and brightly colored, resembling closely the corolla of a
morning-glory or petunia. The stamens are usually more numerous than
the sepals, and the pistil, though composed of several carpels, has,
as a rule, but a single cavity with the ovules arising from the base,
though sometimes the ovary is several celled.

[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Types of _Centrospermae_. _A_, plant of
spring-beauty, _Claytonia_ (_Portulacaceae_), x 1/2. _B_, a single
flower, x 1. _C_, fruit, with the sepals removed, x 2. _D_, section of
the seed, showing the curved embryo (_em._), x 5. _E_, single flower
of smart-weed, _Polygonum_ (_Polygonaceae_), x 2. _F_, the pistil, x 2.
_G_, section of the ovary, showing the single ovule, x 4. _H_, section
of the seed, x 2. _I_, base of the leaf, showing the sheath, x 1. _J_,
flower of pig-weed, _Chenopodium_ (_Chenopodiaceae_), x 3: i, from
without; ii, in section. _K_, flower of the poke-weed, _Phytolacca_
(_Phytolaccaceae_), x 2. _L_, fire-pink, _Silene_ (_Caryophyllaceae_),
x 1/2. _M_, a flower with half of the calyx and corolla removed, x 1.
_N_, ripe fruit of mouse-ear chick-weed, _Cerastium_ (_Caryophyllaceae_),
opening by ten teeth at the summit, x 2. _O_, diagram of the flower
of _Silene_.]

The first family (_Polygoneae_) is represented by the various species
of _Polygonum_ (knotgrass, smart-weed, etc.), and among cultivated
plants by the buckwheat (_Fagopyrum_). The goose-foot or pig-weed
(_Chenopodium_) among native plants, and the beet and spinach of the
gardens are examples of the family _Chenopodiaceae_. Nearly resembling
the last is the amaranth family (_Amarantaceae_), of which the showy
amaranths and coxcombs of the gardens, and the coarse, green amaranth
or pig-weed are representatives.

The poke-weed (_Phytolacca_) (Fig. 98, _K_), so conspicuous in autumn
on account of its dark-purple clusters of berries and crimson stalks,
is our only representative of the family _Phytolaccaceae_. The two
highest families are the purslane family (_Portulacaceae_) and pink
family (_Caryophylleae_). These are mostly plants with showy flowers in
which the petals are large and conspicuous, though some of the pink
family, _e.g._ some chick-weeds, have no petals. Of the purslane
family the portulacas of the gardens, and the common purslane or
"pusley," and the spring-beauty (_Claytonia_) (Fig. 98, _A_) are the
commonest examples. The pink family is represented by many common and
often showy plants. The carnation, Japanese pinks, and sweet-william,
all belonging to the genus _Dianthus_, of which there are also two or
three native species, are among the showiest of the family. The genera
_Lychnis_ and _Silene_ (Fig. 98, _L_) also contain very showy species.
Of the less conspicuous genera, the chick-weeds (_Cerastium_ and
_Stellaria_) are the most familiar.

The third group of the _Choripetalae_ (the _Aphanocyclae_) is a very
large one and includes many common plants distributed among five
orders. The lower ones have all the parts of the flower entirely
separate, and often indefinite in number; the higher have the gynoecium
composed of two or more carpels united to form a compound pistil.

The first order (_Polycarpae_) includes ten families, of which the
buttercup family (_Ranunculaceae_) is the most familiar. The plants of
this family show much variation in the details of the flowers, which
are usually showy, but the general plan is much the same. In some of
them, like the anemones (Fig. 99, _A_), clematis, and others, the
corolla is absent, but the sepals are large and brightly colored so as
to appear like petals. In the columbine (_Aquilegia_) (Fig. 99, _F_)
the petals are tubular, forming nectaries, and in the larkspur
(Fig. 99, _T_) one of the sepals is similarly changed.

Representing the custard-apple family (_Anonaceae_) is the curious
papaw (_Asimina_), common in many parts of the United States
(Fig. 100, _A_). The family is mainly a tropical one, but this species
extends as far north as southern Michigan.

[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Types of _Aphanocyclae_ (_Polycarpae_), family
_Ranunculaceae_. _A_, Rue anemone (_Anemonilla_), x 1/2. _B_, a fruit,
x 2. _C_, section of the same. _D_, section of a buttercup flower
(_Ranunculus_), x 11/2. _E_, diagram of buttercup flower. _F_, wild
columbine (_Aquilegia_), x 1/2. _G_, one of the spur-shaped petals, x 1.
_H_, the five pistils, x 1. _I_, longitudinal section of the fruit,
x 1. _J_, flower of larkspur (_Delphinium_), x 1. _K_, the four petals
and stamens, after the removal of the five colored and petal-like
sepals, x 1.]

The magnolia family (_Magnoliaceae_) has several common members, the
most widely distributed being, perhaps, the tulip-tree (_Liriodendron_)
(Fig. 100, _C_), much valued for its timber. Besides this there are
several species of magnolia, the most northerly species being the
sweet-bay (_Magnolia glauca_) of the Atlantic States, and the
cucumber-tree (_M. acuminata_); the great magnolia (_M. grandiflora_)
is not hardy in the northern states.

The sweet-scented shrub (_Calycanthus_) (Fig. 100, _G_) is the only
member of the family _Calycanthaceae_ found within our limits. It grows
wild in the southern states, and is cultivated for its sweet-scented,
dull, reddish flowers.

[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Types of _Aphanocyclae_ (_Polycarpae_). _A_,
branch of papaw, _Asimina_ (_Anonaceae_), x 1/2. _B_, section of the
flower, x 1. _C_, flower and leaf of tulip-tree, _Liriodendron_
(_Magnoliaceae_), x 1/3. _D_, section of a flower, x 1/2. _E_, a ripe
fruit, x 1. _F_, diagram of the flower. _G_, flower of the
sweet-scented shrub, _Calycanthus_ (_Calycanthaceae_), x 1/2]

The barberry (_Berberis_) (Fig. 101, _A_) is the type of the family
_Berberideae_, which also includes the curious mandrake or may-apple
(_Podophyllum_) (Fig. 101, _D_), and the twin-leaf or rheumatism-root
(_Jeffersonia_), whose curious seed vessel is shown in Figure 101,
_G_. The fruit of the barberry and may-apple are edible, but the root
of the latter is poisonous.

The curious woody twiner, moon-seed (_Menispermum_) (Fig. 101, _I_),
is the sole example in the northern states of the family _Menispermeae_
to which it belongs. The flowers are dioecious, and the pistillate
flowers are succeeded by black fruits looking like grapes. The
flattened, bony seed is curiously sculptured, and has the embryo
curled up within it.

[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Types of _Aphanocyclae_ (_Polycarpae_). _A-H_,
_Berberidaceae_. _A_, flower of barberry (_Berberis_), x 2. _B_, the
same in section. _C_, a stamen, showing the method of opening, x 3.
_D_, flower of may-apple (_Podophyllum_), x 1/2. _E_, section of the
ovary of _D_, x 1. _F_, diagram of the flower. _G_, ripe fruit of
twin-leaf (_Jeffersonia_), opening by a lid, x 1/2. _H_, section of
seed, showing the embryo (_em._), x 2. _I_, young leaf and cluster of
male flowers of moon-seed, _Menispermum_ (_Menispermeae_), x 1. _J_, a
single male flower, x 2. _K_, section of a female flower, x 2. _L_,
ripe seed, x 1. _M_, section of _L_, showing the curved embryo.]

The last two families of the order, the laurel family (_Laurineae_) and
the nutmeg family (_Myristicineae_) are mostly tropical plants,
characterized by the fragrance of the bark, leaves, and fruit. The
former is represented by the sassafras and spice-bush, common
throughout the eastern United States. The latter has no members within
our borders, but is familiar to all through the common nutmeg, which
is the seed of _Myristica fragrans_ of the East Indies. "Mace" is the
"aril" or covering of the seed of the same plant.

The second order of the _Aphanocyclae_ comprises a number of aquatic
plants, mostly of large size, and is known as the _Hydropeltidinae_.
The flowers and leaves are usually very large, the latter usually
nearly round in outline, and frequently with the stalk inserted near
the middle. The leaves of the perigone are numerous, and sometimes
merge gradually into the stamens, as we find in the common white
water-lily (_Castalia_).

[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Types of _Aphanocyclae_ (_Hydropeltidinae_).
_A_, yellow water-lily, _Nymphaea_ (_Nymphaeaceae_), x 1/2. _B_, a leaf of
the same, x 1/6. _C_, freshly opened flower, with the large petal-like
sepals removed, x 1/2. _p_, petals. _an._ stamens. _st._ stigma. _D_,
section of the ovary, x 2. _E_, young fruit, x 1/2. _F_, lotus,
_Nelumbo_ (_Nelumbieae_). x 1/6. _G_, a stamen, x 1. _H_, the large
receptacle, with the separate pistils sunk in its surface, x 1/2. _I_,
section of a single pistil, x 2. _ov._ the ovule. _J_, upper part of a
section through the stigma and ovule (_ov._), x 4.]

There are three families, all represented within the United States.
The first (_Nelumbieae_) has but a single species, the yellow lotus or
nelumbo (_Nelumbo lutea_), common in the waters of the west and
southwest, but rare eastward (Fig. 101, _F_). In this flower, the end
of the flower axis is much enlarged, looking like the rose of a
watering-pot, and has the large, separate carpels embedded in its
upper surface. When ripe, each forms a nut-like fruit which is edible.
There are but two species of _Nelumbo_ known, the second one
(_N. speciosa_) being a native of southeastern Asia, and probably
found in ancient times in Egypt, as it is represented frequently in
the pictures and carvings of the ancient Egyptians. It differs mainly
from our species in the color of its flowers which are red instead of
yellow. It has recently been introduced into New Jersey where it has
become well established in several localities.

The second family (_Cabombeae_) is also represented at the north by but
one species, the water shield (_Brasenia_), not uncommon in marshes.
Its flowers are quite small, of a dull-purple color, and the leaves
oval in outline and centrally peltate, _i.e._ the leaf stalk inserted
in the centre. The whole plant is covered with a transparent
gelatinous coat.

The third family (_Nymphaeaceae_) includes the common white water-lilies
(_Castalia_) and the yellow water-lilies (_Nymphaea_) (Fig. 102, _A_).
In the latter the petals are small and inconspicuous (Fig. 102, _C_,
_p_), but the sepals are large and showy. In this family the carpels,
instead of being separate, are united into a large compound pistil.
The water-lilies reach their greatest perfection in the tropics, where
they attain an enormous size, the white, blue, or red flowers of some
species being thirty centimetres or more in diameter, and the leaves
of the great _Victoria regia_ of the Amazon reaching two metres or
more in width.

The third order of the _Aphanocyclae_ (_Rhoeadinae_ or _Cruciflorae_)
comprises a number of common plants, principally characterized by
having the parts of the flowers in twos or fours, so that they are
more or less distinctly cross-shaped, whence the name _Cruciflorae_.

There are four families, of which the first is the poppy family
(_Papaveraceae_), including the poppies, eschscholtzias, Mexican or
prickly poppy (_Argemone_), etc., of the gardens, and the blood-root
(_Sanguinaria_), celandine poppy (_Stylophorum_), and a few other wild
plants (see Fig. 103, _A-I_). Most of the family have a colored juice
(latex), which is white in the poppy, yellow in celandine and
_Argemone_, and orange-red in the blood-root. From the latex of the
opium poppy the opium of commerce is extracted.

[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Types of _Aphanocyclae_ (_Rhoedinae_). _A_,
plant of blood-root, _Sanguinaria_ (_Papaveraceae_), x 1/3. _B_, a single
flower, x 1. _C_, fruit, x 1/2. _D_, section of the seed. _em._ embryo,
x 2. _E_, diagram of the flower. _F_, flower of Dutchman's breeches,
_Dicentra_ (_Fumariaceae_), x 1. _G_, group of three stamens of the
same, x 2. _H_, one of the inner petals, x 2. _I_, fruit of celandine
poppy, _Stylophorum_ (_Papaveraceae_), x 1/2. _J_, flower of mustard,
_Brassica_ (_Cruciferae_), x 1. _K_, the same, with the petals removed,
x 2. _L_, fruit of the same, x 1.]

The second family, the fumitories (_Fumariaceae_) are delicate, smooth
plants, with curious flowers and compound leaves. The garden
bleeding-heart (_Dicentra spectabilis_) and the pretty, wild
_Dicentras_ (Fig. 103, _F_) are familiar to nearly every one.

Other examples are the mountain fringe (_Adlumia_), a climbing
species, and several species of _Corydalis_, differing mainly from
_Dicentra_ in having the corolla one-sided.

The mustard family (_Cruciferae_) comprises by far the greater part of
the order. The shepherd's-purse, already studied, belongs here, and
may be taken as a type of the family. There is great uniformity in all
as regards the flowers, so that the classification is based mainly on
differences in the fruit and seeds. Many of the most valuable garden
vegetables, as well as a few more or less valuable wild plants, are
members of the family, which, however, includes some troublesome
weeds. Cabbages, turnips, radishes, with all their varieties, belong
here, as well as numerous species of wild cresses. A few like the
wall-flower (_Cheiranthus_) and stock (_Matthiola_) are cultivated for
ornament.

The last family is the caper family (_Capparideae_), represented by
only a few not common plants. The type of the order is _Capparis_,
whose pickled flower-buds constitute capers.

The fourth order (_Cistiflorae_) of the _Aphanocyclae_ is a very large
one, but the majority of the sixteen families included in it are not
represented within our limits. The flowers have the sepals and petals
in fives, the stamens either the same or more numerous.

[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Types of _Aphanocyclae_ (_Cistiflorae_). _A_,
flower of wild blue violet, _Viola_ (_Violaceae_), x 1. _B_, the lower
petal prolonged behind into a sac or spur, x 1. _C_, the stamens, x 2.
_D_, pistil, x 2. _E_, a leaf, x 1/2. _F_, section of the ovary, x 2.
_G_, the fruit, x 1. _H_, the same after it has opened, x 1. _I_,
diagram of the flower. _J_, flower of mignonette, _Reseda_
(_Resedaceae_), x 2. _K_, a petal, x 3. _L_, cross-section of the
ovary, x 3. _M_, fruit, x 1. _N_, plant of sundew, _Drosera_
(_Droseraceae_), x 1/2. _O_, a leaf that has captured a mosquito, x 2.
_P_, flower of another species (_D. filiformis_), x 2. _Q_,
cross-section of the ovary, x 4.]

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