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More Letters of Charles Darwin Volume I

C >> Charles Darwin >> More Letters of Charles Darwin Volume I





LETTER 337. TO J.D. HOOKER.
Down, December 10th [1856].

It is a most tiresome drawback to my satisfaction in writing that, though I
leave out a good deal and try to condense, every chapter runs to such an
inordinate length. My present chapter on the causes of fertility and
sterility and on natural crossing has actually run out to 100 pages MS.,
and yet I do not think I have put in anything superfluous...

I have for the last fifteen months been tormented and haunted by land-
mollusca, which occur on every oceanic island; and I thought that the
double creationists or continental extensionists had here a complete
victory. The few eggs which I have tried both sink and are killed. No one
doubts that salt water would be eminently destructive to them; and I was
really in despair, when I thought I would try them when torpid; and this
day I have taken a lot out of the sea-water, after exactly seven days'
immersion. (337/1. This method of dispersal is not given in the "Origin";
it seems, therefore, probable that further experiments upset the conclusion
drawn in 1856. This would account for the satisfaction expressed in the
following year at the discovery of another method, on which Darwin wrote to
Sir J.D. Hooker: "The distribution of fresh-water molluscs has been a
horrid incubus to me, but I think I know my way now. When first hatched
they are very active, and I have had thirty or forty crawl on a dead duck's
foot; and they cannot be jerked off, and will live fifteen or even twenty-
four hours out of water" ("Life and Letters," II., page 93). The published
account of these experiments is in the "Origin," Edition I., page 385.)
Some sink and some swim; and in both cases I have had (as yet) one come to
life again, which has quite astonished and delighted me. I feel as if a
thousand-pound weight was taken off my back. Adios, my dear, kind friend.

I must tell you another of my profound experiments! [Frank] said to me:
"Why should not a bird be killed (by hawk, lightning, apoplexy, hail, etc.)
with seed in its crop, and it would swim?" No sooner said than done: a
pigeon has floated for thirty days in salt water with seeds in its crop,
and they have grown splendidly; and to my great surprise even tares
(Leguminosae, so generally killed by sea-water), which the bird had
naturally eaten, have grown well. You will say gulls and dog-fish, etc.,
would eat up the carcase, and so they would 999 times out of a thousand,
but one might escape: I have seen dead land-birds in sea-drift.


LETTER 338. ASA GRAY TO CHARLES DARWIN.

(338/1. In reply to Darwin's letter given in "Life and Letters," II., page
88.)

Cambridge, Mass., February 16th, 1857.

I meant to have replied to your interesting letter of January 1st long
before this time, and also that of November 24th, which I doubt if I have
ever acknowledged. But after getting my school-book, Lessons in Botany,
off my hands--it taking up time far beyond what its size would seem to
warrant--I had to fall hard at work upon a collection of small size from
Japan--mostly N. Japan, which I am only just done with. As I expected, the
number of species common to N. America is considerably increased in this
collection, as also the number of closely representative species in the
two, and a pretty considerable number of European species too. I have
packed off my MSS. (though I hardly know what will become of it), or I
would refer you to some illustrations. The greater part of the identical
species (of Japan and N. America) are of those extending to or belonging to
N.W. coast of America, but there are several peculiar to Japan and E. U.
States: e.g. our Viburnum lantanoides is one of Thunberg's species. De
Candolle's remarkable case of Phryma, which he so dwells upon, turns out,
as Dr. Hooker said it would, to be only one out of a great many cases of
the same sort. (Hooker brought Monotropa uniflora, you know, from the
Himalayas; and now, by the way, I have it from almost as far south, i.e.,
from St. Fee, New Granada)...

Well, I never meant to draw any conclusions at all, and am very sorry that
the only one I was beguiled into should "rile" (338/2. "One of your
conclusions makes me groan, viz., that the line of connection of the
strictly alpine plants is through Greenland. I should extremely like to
see your reasons published in detail, for it 'riles' me (this is a proper
expression, is it not?) dreadfully" (Darwin to Gray, January 1st, 1857,
"Life and Letters," II., page 89).) you, as you say it does,--that on page
73 of my second article: for if it troubles you it is not likely to be
sound. Of course I had no idea of laying any great stress upon the fact
(at first view so unexpected to me) that one-third of our alpine species
common to Europe do not reach the Arctic circle; but the remark which I put
down was an off-hand inference from what you geologists seem to have
settled--viz., that the northern regions must have been a deal cooler than
they are now--the northern limit of vegetation therefore much lower than
now--about the epoch when it would seem probable that the existing species
of our plants were created. At any rate, during the Glacial period there
could have been no phaenogamous plants on our continent anywhere near the
polar regions; and it seems a good rule to look in the first place for the
cause or reason of what now is, in that which immediately preceded. I
don't see that Greenland could help us much, but if there was any
interchange of species between N. America and N. Europe in those times, was
not the communication more likely to be in lower latitudes than over the
pole?

If, however, you say--as you may have very good reasons for saying--that
the existing species got their present diffusion before the Glacial epoch,
I should have no answer. I suppose you must needs assume very great
antiquity for species of plants in order to account for their present
dispersion, so long as we cling--as one cannot but do--to the idea of the
single birthplace of species.

I am curious to see whether, as you suggest, there would be found a harmony
or close similarity between the geographical range in this country of the
species common to Europe and those strictly representative or strictly
congeneric with European species. If I get a little time I will look up
the facts: though, as Dr. Hooker rightly tells me, I have no business to
be running after side game of any sort, while there is so much I have to
do--much more than I shall ever do probably--to finish undertakings I have
long ago begun.

...As to your P.S. If you have time to send me a longer list of your
protean genera, I will say if they seem to be protean here. Of those you
mention:--

Salix, I really know nothing about.

Rubus, the N. American species, with one exception, are very clearly marked
indeed.

Mentha, we have only one wild species; that has two pretty well-marked
forms, which have been taken for species; one smooth, the other hairy.

Saxifraga, gives no trouble here.

Myosotis, only one or two species here, and those very well marked.

Hieracium, few species, but pretty well marked.

Rosa, putting down a set of nominal species, leaves us four; two of them
polymorphous, but easy to distinguish...


LETTER 339. TO J.D. HOOKER.
Down, [1857?]

One must judge by one's own light, however imperfect, and as I have found
no other book (339/1. A. De Candolle's "Geographie Botanique," 1855.) so
useful to me, I am bound to feel grateful: no doubt it is in main part
owing to the concentrated light of the noble art of compilation. (339/2.
See Letter 49.) I was aware that he was not the first who had insisted on
range of Monocots. (Was not R. Brown [with] Flinders?) (339/3. M.
Flinders' "Voyage to Terra Australis in 1801-3, in H.M.S. 'Investigator'";
with "Botanical Appendix," by Robert Brown, London, 1814.), and I fancy I
only used expression "strongly insisted on,"--but it is quite unimportant.

If you and I had time to waste, I should like to go over his [De
Candolle's] book and point out the several subjects in which I fancy he is
original. His remarks on the relations of naturalised plants will be very
useful to me; on the ranges of large families seemed to me good, though I
believe he has made a great blunder in taking families instead of smaller
groups, as I have been delighted to find in A. Gray's last paper. But it
is no use going on.

I do so wish I could understand clearly why you do not at all believe in
accidental means of dispersion of plants. The strongest argument which I
can remember at this instant is A. de C., that very widely ranging plants
are found as commonly on islands as over continents. It is really
provoking to me that the immense contrast in proportion of plants in New
Zealand and Australia seems to me a strong argument for non-continuous
land; and this does not seem to weigh in the least with you. I wish I
could put myself in your frame of mind. In Madeira I find in Wollaston's
books a parallel case with your New Zealand case--viz., the striking
absence of whole genera and orders now common in Europe, and (as I have
just been hunting out) common in Europe in Miocene periods. Of course I
can offer no explanation why this or that group is absent; but if the means
of introduction have been accidental, then one might expect odd proportions
and absences. When we meet, do try and make me see more clearly than I do,
your reasons.


LETTER 340. TO J.D. HOOKER.
Down, November 14th [1858].

I am heartily glad to hear that my Lyellian notes have been of the
slightest use to you. (340/1. The Copley Medal was given to Sir Charles
Lyell in 1858. Mr. Darwin supplied Sir J.D. Hooker, who was on the Council
of the Royal Society, with notes for the reasons for the award. See Letter
69.) I do not think the view is exaggerated...

Your letter and lists have MOST DEEPLY interested me. First for less
important point, about hermaphrodite trees. (340/2. See "Life and
Letters," II., page 89. In the "Origin," Edition I., page 100, the author
quotes Dr. Hooker to the effect that "the rule does not hold in Australia,"
i.e., that trees are not more generally unisexual than other plants. In
the 6th edition, page 79, Darwin adds, "but if most of the Australian trees
are dichogamous, the same result would follow as if they bore flowers with
separated sexes.") It is enough to knock me down, yet I can hardly think
that British N. America and New Zealand should all have been theoretically
right by chance. Have you at Kew any Eucalyptus or Australian Mimosa which
sets its seeds? if so, would it be very troublesome to observe when pollen
is mature, and whether pollen-tubes enter stigma readily immediately that
pollen is mature or some little time afterwards? though if pollen is not
mature for some little time after flower opens, the stigma might be ready
first, though according to C.C. Sprengel this is a rarer case. I wrote to
Muller for chance of his being able and willing to observe this.

Your fact of greater number of European plants (N.B.--But do you mean
greater percentage?) in Australia than in S. America is astounding and very
unpleasant to me; for from N.W. America (where nearly the same flora exists
as in Canada?) to T. del Fuego, there is far more continuous high land than
from Europe to Tasmania. There must have, I should think, existed some
curious barrier on American High-Road: dryness of Peru, excessive damp of
Panama, or some other confounded cause, which either prevented immigration
or has since destroyed them. You say I may ask questions, and so I have on
enclosed paper; but it will of course be a very different thing whether you
will think them worth labour of answering.

May I keep the lists now returned? otherwise I will have them copied.

You said that you would give me a few cases of Australian forms and
identical species going north by Malay Archipelago mountains to Philippines
and Japan; but if these are given in your "Introduction" this will suffice
for me. (340/3. See Hooker's "Introductory Essay," page l.)

Your lists seem to me wonderfully interesting.

According to my theoretical notions, I am not satisfied with what you say
about local plants in S.W. corner of Australia (340/4. Sir Joseph replied
in an undated letter: "Thanks for your hint. I shall be very cautious how
I mention any connection between the varied flora and poor soil of S.W.
Australia...It is not by the way only that the species are so numerous, but
that these and the genera are so confoundedly well marked. You have, in
short, an incredible number of VERY LOCAL, WELL MARKED genera and species
crowded into that corner of Australia." See "Introductory Essay to the
Flora of Tasmania," 1859, page li.), and the seeds not readily germinating:
do be cautious on this; consider lapse of time. It does not suit my
stomach at all. It is like Wollaston's confined land-snails in Porto
Santo, and confined to same spots since a Tertiary period, being due to
their slow crawling powers; and yet we know that other shell-snails have
stocked a whole country within a very few years with the same breeding
powers, and same crawling powers, when the conditions have been favourable
to the life of the introduced species. Hypothetically I should rather look
at the case as owing to-- but as my notions are not very simple or clear,
and only hypothetical, they are not worth inflicting on you.

I had vowed not to mention my everlasting Abstract (340/5. The "Origin of
Species" was abbreviated from the MS. of an unpublished book.) to you
again, for I am sure I have bothered you far more than enough about it; but
as you allude to its previous publication I may say that I have chapters on
Instinct and Hybridism to abstract, which may take a fortnight each; and my
materials for Palaeontology, Geographical Distribution and Affinities being
less worked up, I daresay each of these will take me three weeks, so that I
shall not have done at soonest till April, and then my Abstract will in
bulk make a small volume. I never give more than one or two instances, and
I pass over briefly all difficulties, and yet I cannot make my Abstract
shorter, to be satisfactory, than I am now doing, and yet it will expand to
small volume.


LETTER 341. TO J.D. HOOKER.
Down [November?] 27th [1858].

What you say about the Cape flora's direct relation to Australia is a great
trouble to me. Does not Abyssinia highland, (341/1. In a letter to
Darwin, December 21st (?), 1858, Sir J.D. Hooker wrote: "Highlands of
Abyssinia will not help you to connect the Cape and Australian temperate
floras: they want all the types common to both, and, worse than that,
India notably wants them. Proteaceae, Thymeleae, Haemodoraceae, Acacia,
Rutaceae, of closely allied genera (and in some cases species), are jammed
up in S.W. Australia, and C.B.S. [Cape of Good Hope]: add to this the
Epacrideae (which are mere (paragraph symbol) of Ericaceae) and the absence
or rarity of Rasaceae, etc., etc., and you have an amount [of] similarity
in the floras and dissimilarity to that of Abyssinia and India in the same
features that does demand an explanation in any theoretical history of
Southern vegetation."), and the mountains on W. coast in some degree
connect the extra-tropical floras of Cape and Australia? To my mind the
enormous importance of the Glacial period rises daily stronger and
stronger. I am very glad to hear about S.E. and S.W. Australia: I
suspected after my letter was gone that the case must be as it is. You
know of course that nearly the same rule holds with birds and mammals.
Several years ago I reviewed in the "Annals of Natural History," (341/2.
"Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist." Volume XIX., 1847, pages 53-56, an unsigned
review of "A Natural History of the Mammalia," by G.R. Waterhouse, Volume
I. The passage referred to is at page 55: "The fact of South Australia
possessing only few peculiar species, it having been apparently colonised
from the eastern and western coasts, is very interesting; for we believe
that Mr. Robert Brown has shown that nearly the same remark is applicable
to the plants; and Mr. Gould finds that most of the birds from these
opposite shores, though closely allied, are distinct. Considering these
facts, together with the presence in South Australia of upraised modern
Tertiary deposits and of extinct volcanoes, it seems probable that the
eastern and western shores once formed two islands, separated from each
other by a shallow sea, with their inhabitants generically, though not
specifically, related, exactly as are those of New Guinea and Northern
Australia, and that within a geologically recent period a series of
upheavals converted the intermediate sea into those desert plains which are
now known to stretch from the southern coast far northward, and which then
became colonised from the regions to the east and west." On this point see
Hooker's "Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania," page ci, where
Jukes' views are discussed. For an interesting account of the bearings of
the submergence of parts of Australia, see Thiselton-Dyer, "R. Geogr. Soc.
Jour." XXII., No. 6.) Waterhouse's "Mammalia," and speculated that these
two corners, now separated by gulf and low land, must have existed as two
large islands; but it is odd that productions have not become more mingled;
but it accords with, I think, a very general rule in the spreading of
organic beings. I agree with what you say about Lyell; he learns more by
word of mouth than by reading.

Henslow has just gone, and has left me in a fit of enthusiastic admiration
of his character. He is a really noble and good man.


LETTER 342. TO G. BENTHAM.
Down, December 1st [1858?].

I thank you for so kindly taking the trouble of writing to me, on
naturalised plants. I did not know of, or had forgotten, the clover case.
How I wish I knew what plants the clover took the place of; but that would
require more accurate knowledge of any one piece of ground than I suppose
any one has. In the case of trees being so long-lived, I should think it
would be extremely difficult to distinguish between true and new spreading
of a species, and a rotation of crop. With respect to your idea of plants
travelling west, I was much struck by a remark of yours in the penultimate
"Linnean Journal" on the spreading of plants from America near Behring
Straits. Do you not consider so many more seeds and plants being taken
from Europe to America, than in a reverse direction, would go some way to
account for comparative fewness of naturalised American plants here?
Though I think one might wildly speculate on European weeds having become
well fitted for cultivated land, during thousands of years of culture,
whereas cultivated land would be a new home for native American weeds, and
they would not consequently be able to beat their European rivals when put
in contest with them on cultivated land. Here is a bit of wild theory!
(342/1. See Asa Gray, "Scientific Papers," 1889, Volume II., page 235, on
"The Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds," where the view here given is
adopted. In a letter to Asa Gray (November 6th, 1862), published in the
"Life and Letters," II., page 390, Darwin wrote: "Does it not hurt your
Yankee pride that we thrash you so confoundedly? I am sure Mrs. Gray will
stick up for your own weeds. Ask her whether they are not more honest
downright good sort of weeds.")

But I did not sit down intending to scribble thus; but to beg a favour of
you. I gave Hooker a list of species of Silene, on which Gartner has
experimentised in crossing: now I want EXTREMELY to be permitted to say
that such and such are believed by Mr. Bentham to be true species, and such
and such to be only varieties. Unfortunately and stupidly, Gartner does
not append author's name to the species.

Thank you heartily for what you say about my book; but you will be greatly
disappointed; it will be grievously too hypothetical. It will very likely
be of no other service than collocating some facts; though I myself think I
see my way approximately on the origin of species. But, alas, how
frequent, how almost universal it is in an author to persuade himself of
the truth of his own dogmas. My only hope is that I certainly see very
many difficulties of gigantic stature.

If you can remember any cases of one introduced species beating out or
prevailing over another, I should be most thankful to hear it. I believe
the common corn-poppy has been seen indigenous in Sicily. I should like to
know whether you suppose that seedlings of this wild plant would stand a
contest with our own poppy; I should almost expect that our poppies were in
some degree acclimatised and accustomed to our cornfields. If this could
be shown to be so in this and other cases, I think we could understand why
many not-trained American plants would not succeed in our agrarian
habitats.


LETTER 343. TO J.D. HOOKER.

(343/1. Mr. Darwin used the knowledge of the spread of introduced plants
in North America and Australia to throw light on the cosmic migration of
plants. Sir J.D. Hooker apparently objected that it was not fair to argue
from agrarian to other plants; he also took a view differing slightly from
that of Darwin as to climatal and other natural conditions favouring
introduced plants in Australia.)

Down, January 28th, 1859.

Thanks about glaciers. It is a pleasure and profit to me to write to you,
and as in your last you have touched on naturalised plants of Australia, I
suppose you would not dislike to hear what I can say in answer. At least I
know you would not wish me to defer to your authority, as long as not
convinced.

I quite agree to what you say about our agrarian plants being accustomed to
cultivated land, and so no fair test. Buckman has, I think, published this
notion with respect to North America. With respect to roadside plants, I
cannot feel so sure that these ought to be excluded, as animals make roads
in many wild countries. (343/2. In the account of naturalised plants in
Australia in Sir J.D. Hooker's "Introductory Essay to the Flora of
Tasmania," 1859, page cvi, many of the plants are marked "Britain--waste
places," "Europe--cornfields," etc. In the same list the species which
have also invaded North America--a large number--are given. On the margin
of Darwin's copy is scribbled in pencil: "Very good, showing how many of
the same species are naturalised in Australia and United States, with very
different climates; opposed to your conclusion." Sir Joseph supposed that
one chief cause of the intrusion of English plants in Australia, and not
vice versa, was the great importation of European seed to Australia and the
scanty return of Australian seed.)

I have now looked and found passage in F. Muller's (343/3. Ferdinand
Muller.) letter to me, in which he says: "In the WILDERNESSES of Australia
some European perennials are "advancing in sure progress," "not to be
arrested," etc. He gives as instances (so I suppose there are other cases)
eleven species, viz., 3. Rumex, Poterium sanguisorba, Potentilla anserina,
Medicago sativa, Taraxacum officinale, Marrubium vulgare, Plantago
lanceolata, P. major, Lolium perenne. All these are seeding freely. Now I
remember, years and years ago, your discussing with me how curiously easily
plants get naturalised on uninhabited islands, if ships even touch there.
I remember we discussed packages being opened with old hay or straw, etc.
Now think of hides and wool (and wool exported largely over Europe), and
plants introduced, and samples of corn; and I must think that if Australia
had been the old country, and Europe had been the Botany Bay, very few,
very much fewer, Australian plants would have run wild in Europe than have
now in Australia.

The case seems to me much stronger between La Plata and Spain.

Nevertheless, I will put in my one sentence on this head, illustrating the
greater migration during Glacial period from north to south than reversely,
very humbly and cautiously. (343/4. "Origin of Species," Edition I., page
379. Darwin refers to the facts given by Hooker and De Candolle showing a
stronger migratory flow from north to south than in the opposite direction.
Darwin accounts for this by the northern plants having been long subject to
severe competition in their northern homes, and having acquired a greater
"dominating power" than the southern forms. "Just in the same manner as we
see at the present day that very many European productions cover the ground
in La Plata, and in a lesser degree in Australia, and have to a certain
extent beaten the natives; whereas extremely few southern forms have become
naturalised in any part of Europe, though hides, wool, and other objects
likely to carry seeds have been largely imported during the last two or
three centuries from La Plata, and during the last thirty or forty years
from Australia.')

I am very glad to hear you are making good progress with your Australian
Introduction. I am, thank God, more than half through my chapter on
geographical distribution, and have done the abstract of the Glacial
part...

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