Thomas Hodgkin - "Theodoric the Goth"

Richard F. Burton - "The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 3"

Sabine Baring Gould - "Castles and Cave Dwellings of Europe"

Mary Hallock Foote - "The Desert and The Sown"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Ethics

A >> Aristotle >> Ethics




[Sidenote: VII] Benefactors are commonly held to have more Friendship
for the objects of their kindness than these for them: and the fact
is made a subject of discussion and inquiry, as being contrary to
reasonable expectation.

The account of the matter which satisfies most persons is that the one
are debtors and the others creditors: and therefore that, as in the case
of actual loans the debtors wish their creditors out of the way while
the creditors are anxious for the preservation of their debtors, so
those who have done kindnesses desire the continued existence of the
people they have done them to, under the notion of getting a return
of their good offices, while these are not particularly anxious about
requital.

Epicharmus, I suspect, would very probably say that they who give this
solution judge from their own baseness; yet it certainly is like human
nature, for the generality of men have short memories on these points,
and aim rather at receiving than conferring benefits.

But the real cause, it would seem, rests upon nature, and the case is
not parallel to that of creditors; because in this there is no affection
to the persons, but merely a wish for their preservation with a view to
the return: whereas, in point of fact, they who have done kindnesses
feel friendship and love for those to whom they have done them, even
though they neither are, nor can by possibility hereafter be, in a
position to serve their benefactors.

[Sidenote: 1168_a_] And this is the case also with artisans; every one,
I mean, feels more affection for his own work than that work possibly
could for him if it were animate. It is perhaps specially the case with
poets: for these entertain very great affection for their poems, loving
them as their own children. It is to this kind of thing I should be
inclined to compare the case of benefactors: for the object of their
kindness is their own work, and so they love this more than this loves
its creator.

And the account of this is that existence is to all a thing choiceworthy
and an object of affection; now we exist by acts of working, that is, by
living and acting; he then that has created a given work exists, it may
be said, by his act of working: therefore he loves his work because he
loves existence. And this is natural, for the work produced displays in
act what existed before potentially.

Then again, the benefactor has a sense of honour in right of his action,
so that he may well take pleasure in him in whom this resides; but to
him who has received the benefit there is nothing honourable in respect
of his benefactor, only something advantageous which is both less
pleasant and less the object of Friendship.

Again, pleasure is derived from the actual working out of a present
action, from the anticipation of a future one, and from the recollection
of a past one: but the highest pleasure and special object of affection
is that which attends on the actual working. Now the benefactor's work
abides (for the honourable is enduring), but the advantage of him who
has received the kindness passes away.

Again, there is pleasure in recollecting honourable actions, but in
recollecting advantageous ones there is none at all or much less (by the
way though, the contrary is true of the expectation of advantage).

Further, the entertaining the feeling of Friendship is like acting on
another; but being the object of the feeling is like being acted upon.

So then, entertaining the sentiment of Friendship, and all feelings
connected with it, attend on those who, in the given case of a
benefaction, are the superior party.

Once more: all people value most what has cost them much labour in the
production; for instance, people who have themselves made their money
are fonder of it than those who have inherited it: and receiving
kindness is, it seems, unlaborious, but doing it is laborious. And this
is the reason why the female parents are most fond of their offspring;
for their part in producing them is attended with most labour, and they
know more certainly that they are theirs. This feeling would seem also
to belong to benefactors.

[Sidenote: VIII] A question is also raised as to whether it is right
to love one's Self best, or some one else: because men find fault with
those who love themselves best, and call them in a disparaging way
lovers of Self; and the bad man is thought to do everything he does
for his own sake merely, and the more so the more depraved he is;
accordingly men reproach him with never doing anything unselfish:
whereas the good man acts from a sense of honour (and the more so the
better man he is), and for his friend's sake, and is careless of his own
interest.

[Sidenote: 1168_b_] But with these theories facts are at variance, and
not unnaturally: for it is commonly said also that a man is to love most
him who is most his friend, and he is most a friend who wishes good to
him to whom he wishes it for that man's sake even though no one knows.
Now these conditions, and in fact all the rest by which a friend is
characterised, belong specially to each individual in respect of his
Self: for we have said before that all the friendly feelings are derived
to others from those which have Self primarily for their object. And all
the current proverbs support this view; for instance, "one soul," "the
goods of friends are common," "equality is a tie of Friendship," "the
knee is nearer than the shin." For all these things exist specially with
reference to a man's own Self: he is specially a friend to himself and
so he is bound to love himself the most.

It is with good reason questioned which of the two parties one should
follow, both having plausibility on their side. Perhaps then, in respect
of theories of this kind, the proper course is to distinguish and define
how far each is true, and in what way. If we could ascertain the sense
in which each uses the term "Self-loving," this point might be cleared
up.

Well now, they who use it disparagingly give the name to those who,
in respect of wealth, and honours, and pleasures of the body, give to
themselves the larger share: because the mass of mankind grasp after
these and are earnest about them as being the best things; which is the
reason why they are matters of contention. They who are covetous in
regard to these gratify their lusts and passions in general, that is to
say the irrational part of their soul: now the mass of mankind are so
disposed, for which reason the appellation has taken its rise from that
mass which is low and bad. Of course they are justly reproached who are
Self-loving in this sense.

And that the generality of men are accustomed to apply the term to
denominate those who do give such things to themselves is quite plain:
suppose, for instance, that a man were anxious to do, more than other
men, acts of justice, or self-mastery, or any other virtuous acts, and,
in general, were to secure to himself that which is abstractedly noble
and honourable, no one would call him Self-loving, nor blame him.

Yet might such an one be judged to be more truly Self-loving: certainly
he gives to himself the things which are most noble and most good,
and gratifies that Principle of his nature which is most rightfully
authoritative, and obeys it in everything: and just as that which
possesses the highest authority is thought to constitute a Community or
any other system, so also in the case of Man: and so he is most truly
Self-loving who loves and gratifies this Principle.

Again, men are said to have, or to fail of having, self-control,
according as the Intellect controls or not, it being plainly implied
thereby that this Principle constitutes each individual; and people are
thought to have done of themselves, and voluntarily, those things
specially which are done with Reason. [Sidenote: 1169_a_]

It is plain, therefore, that this Principle does, either entirely or
specially constitute the individual man, and that the good man specially
loves this. For this reason then he must be specially Self-loving, in a
kind other than that which is reproached, and as far superior to it as
living in accordance with Reason is to living at the beck and call of
passion, and aiming at the truly noble to aiming at apparent advantage.

Now all approve and commend those who are eminently earnest about
honourable actions, and if all would vie with one another in respect of
the [Greek: kalhon], and be intent upon doing what is most truly noble
and honourable, society at large would have all that is proper while
each individual in particular would have the greatest of goods, Virtue
being assumed to be such.

And so the good man ought to be Self-loving: because by doing what is
noble he will have advantage himself and will do good to others: but the
bad man ought not to be, because he will harm himself and his neighbours
by following low and evil passions. In the case of the bad man, what he
ought to do and what he does are at variance, but the good man does what
he ought to do, because all Intellect chooses what is best for itself
and the good man puts himself under the direction of Intellect.

Of the good man it is true likewise that he does many things for the
sake of his friends and his country, even to the extent of dying for
them, if need be: for money and honours, and, in short, all the good
things which others fight for, he will throw away while eager to secure
to himself the [Greek: kalhon]: he will prefer a brief and great joy
to a tame and enduring one, and to live nobly for one year rather than
ordinarily for many, and one great and noble action to many trifling
ones. And this is perhaps that which befals men who die for their
country and friends; they choose great glory for themselves: and they
will lavish their own money that their friends may receive more, for
hereby the friend gets the money but the man himself the [Greek:
kalhon]; so, in fact he gives to himself the greater good. It is the
same with honours and offices; all these things he will give up to his
friend, because this reflects honour and praise on himself: and so
with good reason is he esteemed a fine character since he chooses the
honourable before all things else. It is possible also to give up the
opportunities of action to a friend; and to have caused a friend's doing
a thing may be more noble than having done it one's self.

In short, in all praiseworthy things the good man does plainly give to
himself a larger share of the honourable. [Sidenote: 1169_b_] In this
sense it is right to be Self-loving, in the vulgar acceptation of the
term it is not.

[Sidenote: IX] A question is raised also respecting the Happy man,
whether he will want Friends, or no?

Some say that they who are blessed and independent have no need of
Friends, for they already have all that is good, and so, as being
independent, want nothing further: whereas the notion of a friend's
office is to be as it were a second Self and procure for a man what he
cannot get by himself: hence the saying,

"When Fortune gives us good, what need we Friends?"

On the other hand, it looks absurd, while we are assigning to the Happy
man all other good things, not to give him Friends, which are, after
all, thought to be the greatest of external goods.

Again, if it is more characteristic of a friend to confer than to
receive kindnesses, and if to be beneficent belongs to the good man and
to the character of virtue, and if it is more noble to confer kindnesses
on friends than strangers, the good man will need objects for his
benefactions. And out of this last consideration springs a question
whether the need of Friends be greater in prosperity or adversity, since
the unfortunate man wants people to do him kindnesses and they who are
fortunate want objects for their kind acts.

Again, it is perhaps absurd to make our Happy man a solitary, because
no man would choose the possession of all goods in the world on the
condition of solitariness, man being a social animal and formed by
nature for living with others: of course the Happy man has this
qualification since he has all those things which are good by nature:
and it is obvious that the society of friends and good men must be
preferable to that of strangers and ordinary people, and we conclude,
therefore, that the Happy man does need Friends.

But then, what do they mean whom we quoted first, and how are they
right? Is it not that the mass of mankind mean by Friends those who are
useful? and of course the Happy man will not need such because he has
all good things already; neither will he need such as are Friends with
a view to the pleasurable, or at least only to a slight extent; because
his life, being already pleasurable, does not want pleasure imported
from without; and so, since the Happy man does not need Friends of these
kinds, he is thought not to need any at all.

But it may be, this is not true: for it was stated originally, that
Happiness is a kind of Working; now Working plainly is something
that must come into being, not be already there like a mere piece of
property.

[Sidenote: 1170_a_] If then the being happy consists in living and
working, and the good man's working is in itself excellent and
pleasurable (as we said at the commencement of the treatise), and if
what is our own reckons among things pleasurable, and if we can view our
neighbours better than ourselves and their actions better than we
can our own, then the actions of their Friends who are good men are
pleasurable to the good; inasmuch as they have both the requisites which
are naturally pleasant. So the man in the highest state of happiness
will need Friends of this kind, since he desires to contemplate good
actions, and actions of his own, which those of his friend, being a good
man, are. Again, common opinion requires that the Happy man live with
pleasure to himself: now life is burthensome to a man in solitude, for
it is not easy to work continuously by one's self, but in company with,
and in regard to others, it is easier, and therefore the working, being
pleasurable in itself will be more continuous (a thing which should be
in respect of the Happy man); for the good man, in that he is good takes
pleasure in the actions which accord with Virtue and is annoyed at those
which spring from Vice, just as a musical man is pleased with beautiful
music and annoyed by bad. And besides, as Theognis says, Virtue itself
may be improved by practice, from living with the good.

And, upon the following considerations more purely metaphysical, it will
probably appear that the good friend is naturally choiceworthy to the
good man. We have said before, that whatever is naturally good is also
in itself good and pleasant to the good man; now the fact of living, so
far as animals are concerned, is characterised generally by the power
of sentience, in man it is characterised by that of sentience, or
of rationality (the faculty of course being referred to the actual
operation of the faculty, certainly the main point is the actual
operation of it); so that living seems mainly to consist in the act of
sentience or exerting rationality: now the fact of living is in itself
one of the things that are good and pleasant (for it is a definite
totality, and whatever is such belongs to the nature of good), but what
is naturally good is good to the good man: for which reason it seems
to be pleasant to all. (Of course one must not suppose a life which is
depraved and corrupted, nor one spent in pain, for that which is such is
indefinite as are its inherent qualities: however, what is to be said of
pain will be clearer in what is to follow.)

If then the fact of living is in itself good and pleasant (and this
appears from the fact that all desire it, and specially those who are
good and in high happiness; their course of life being most choiceworthy
and their existence most choiceworthy likewise), then also he that sees
perceives that he sees; and he that hears perceives that he hears; and
he that walks perceives that he walks; and in all the other instances
in like manner there is a faculty which reflects upon and perceives the
fact that we are working, so that we can perceive that we perceive and
intellectually know that we intellectually know: but to perceive that we
perceive or that we intellectually know is to perceive that we exist,
since existence was defined to be perceiving or intellectually knowing.
[Sidenote: 1170_b_ Now to perceive that one lives is a thing pleasant
in itself, life being a thing naturally good, and the perceiving of the
presence in ourselves of things naturally good being pleasant.]

Therefore the fact of living is choiceworthy, and to the good specially
so since existence is good and pleasant to them: for they receive
pleasure from the internal consciousness of that which in itself is
good.

But the good man is to his friend as to himself, friend being but a name
for a second Self; therefore as his own existence is choiceworthy to
each so too, or similarly at least, is his friend's existence. But the
ground of one's own existence being choiceworthy is the perceiving of
one's self being good, any such perception being in itself pleasant.
Therefore one ought to be thoroughly conscious of one's friend's
existence, which will result from living with him, that is sharing in
his words and thoughts: for this is the meaning of the term as applied
to the human species, not mere feeding together as in the case of
brutes.

If then to the man in a high state of happiness existence is in itself
choiceworthy, being naturally good and pleasant, and so too a friend's
existence, then the friend also must be among things choiceworthy. But
whatever is choiceworthy to a man he should have or else he will be in
this point deficient. The man therefore who is to come up to our notion
"Happy" will need good Friends. Are we then to make our friends as
numerous as possible? or, as in respect of acquaintance it is thought
to have been well said "have not thou many acquaintances yet be not
without;" so too in respect of Friendship may we adopt the precept, and
say that a man should not be without friends, nor again have exceeding
many friends?

Now as for friends who are intended for use, the maxim I have quoted
will, it seems, fit in exceedingly well, because to requite the services
of many is a matter of labour, and a whole life would not be long enough
to do this for them. So that, if more numerous than what will suffice
for one's own life, they become officious, and are hindrances in respect
of living well: and so we do not want them. And again of those who are
to be for pleasure a few are quite enough, just like sweetening in our
food.




X


But of the good are we to make as many as ever we can, or is there
any measure of the number of friends, as there is of the number to
constitute a Political Community? I mean, you cannot make one out of ten
men, and if you increase the number to one hundred thousand it is not
any longer a Community. However, the number is not perhaps some one
definite number but any between certain extreme limits.

[Sidenote: 1171_a_] Well, of friends likewise there is a limited number,
which perhaps may be laid down to be the greatest number with whom it
would be possible to keep up intimacy; this being thought to be one of
the greatest marks of Friendship, and it being quite obvious that it is
not possible to be intimate with many, in other words, to part one's
self among many. And besides it must be remembered that they also are to
be friends to one another if they are all to live together: but it is a
matter of difficulty to find this in many men at once.

It comes likewise to be difficult to bring home to one's self the joys
and sorrows of many: because in all probability one would have to
sympathise at the same time with the joys of this one and the sorrows of
that other.

Perhaps then it is well not to endeavour to have very many friends but
so many as are enough for intimacy: because, in fact, it would seem not
to be possible to be very much a friend to many at the same time: and,
for the same reason, not to be in love with many objects at the same
time: love being a kind of excessive Friendship which implies but one
object: and all strong emotions must be limited in the number towards
whom they are felt.

And if we look to facts this seems to be so: for not many at a time
become friends in the way of companionship, all the famous Friendships
of the kind are between _two_ persons: whereas they who have many
friends, and meet everybody on the footing of intimacy, seem to be
friends really to no one except in the way of general society; I mean
the characters denominated as over-complaisant.

To be sure, in the way merely of society, a man may be a friend to many
without being necessarily over-complaisant, but being truly good: but
one cannot be a friend to many because of their virtue, and for the
persons' own sake; in fact, it is a matter for contentment to find even
a few such.


XI

Again: are friends most needed in prosperity or in adversity? they are
required, we know, in both states, because the unfortunate need help and
the prosperous want people to live with and to do kindnesses to: for
they have a desire to act kindly to some one.

To have friends is more necessary in adversity, and therefore in this
case useful ones are wanted; and to have them in prosperity is more
honourable, and this is why the prosperous want good men for friends, it
being preferable to confer benefits on, and to live with, these. For the
very presence of friends is pleasant even in adversity: since men when
grieved are comforted by the sympathy of their friends.

And from this, by the way, the question might be raised, whether it is
that they do in a manner take part of the weight of calamities, or only
that their presence, being pleasurable, and the consciousness of their
sympathy, make the pain of the sufferer less. However, we will not
further discuss whether these which have been suggested or some other
causes produce the relief, at least the effect we speak of is a matter
of plain fact.

[Sidenote: _1171b_] But their presence has probably a mixed effect: I
mean, not only is the very seeing friends pleasant, especially to one in
misfortune, and actual help towards lessening the grief is afforded
(the natural tendency of a friend, if he is gifted with tact, being
to comfort by look and word, because he is well acquainted with the
sufferer's temper and disposition and therefore knows what things give
him pleasure and pain), but also the perceiving a friend to be grieved
at his misfortunes causes the sufferer pain, because every one avoids
being cause of pain to his friends. And for this reason they who are
of a manly nature are cautious not to implicate their friends in their
pain; and unless a man is exceedingly callous to the pain of others he
cannot bear the pain which is thus caused to his friends: in short, he
does not admit men to wail with him, not being given to wail at all:
women, it is true, and men who resemble women, like to have others to
groan with them, and love such as friends and sympathisers. But it
is plain that it is our duty in all things to imitate the highest
character.

On the other hand, the advantages of friends in our prosperity are the
pleasurable intercourse and the consciousness that they are pleased at
our good fortune.

It would seem, therefore, that we ought to call in friends readily on
occasion of good fortune, because it is noble to be ready to do good to
others: but on occasion of bad fortune, we should do so with reluctance;
for we should as little as possible make others share in our ills; on
which principle goes the saying, "I am unfortunate, let that suffice."
The most proper occasion for calling them in is when with small trouble
or annoyance to themselves they can be of very great use to the person
who needs them.

But, on the contrary, it is fitting perhaps to go to one's friends in
their misfortunes unasked and with alacrity (because kindness is the
friend's office and specially towards those who are in need and who do
not demand it as a right, this being more creditable and more pleasant
to both); and on occasion of their good fortune to go readily, if we
can forward it in any way (because men need their friends for this
likewise), but to be backward in sharing it, any great eagerness to
receive advantage not being creditable.

One should perhaps be cautious not to present the appearance of
sullenness in declining the sympathy or help of friends, for this
happens occasionally.

It appears then that the presence of friends is, under all
circumstances, choiceworthy.

May we not say then that, as seeing the beloved object is most prized by
lovers and they choose this sense rather than any of the others because
Love

"Is engendered in the eyes,
With gazing fed,"

in like manner intimacy is to friends most choiceworthy, Friendship
being communion? Again, as a man is to himself so is he to his friend;
now with respect to himself the perception of his own existence is
choiceworthy, therefore is it also in respect of his friend.

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