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This article examines the wide range of anonymous and pseudonymous naming practices to be found in West African newspapers between the 1880s and 1930s, and asks about the shape of a West African history of anonymity as compared with recent histories of anonymity in European literature. The article also discusses the ways in which colonial West African uses of anonymity and pseudonyms challenge postcolonial scholarship on agency, subjectivity, resistance, authenticity and identity.

The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints

A >> Alban Butler >> The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints




The commentary of St. Chrysostom on St. Matthew fills the seventh tome,
and consists of ninety homilies: the old Latin version, by dividing the
nineteenth into two, counts ninety-one. They were preached at Antioch,
probably in the year 390. This literal and most pious exposition of that
gospel contains the whole practical science of virtues and vices, and is
an inexhausted source of excellent morality, and a finished model of
preaching the word of God, and of expounding the oracles of eternal life
for the edification of souls. St. Thomas Aquinas was possessed only of a
bad Latin translation of this unparalleled work, yet said he would
rather be master of this single book than of the whole city of Paris.
The example of the saint shows that the most essential preparation for
the study of the holy scriptures consists in simplicity and purity of
heart, an eminent spirit of prayer, and habitual profound meditation on
the sacred oracles. Thus qualified, he, with admirable sagacity and
piety, penetrates and unfolds the unbounded spiritual riches of the
least tittle in the divine word; and explains its sacred truths with
incomparable ease, perspicuity, elegance, and energy of style. The moral
instructions are enforced by all the strength and ornaments of the most
sweet and persuasive eloquence. Inveighing against the stage, he calls
it the reign of vice and iniquity, and the ruin of cities: and commends
the saying of that ancient Roman, who, hearing an account of the usual
entertainments which were represented on the stage, and how eagerly the
citizens ran to them, cried out, "Have they then neither wives nor
children at home?" giving to understand, that men ought not to seek
diversion abroad which they would more rationally procure at home with
those whom they love. (Hom. 37, p. 414.) On the precept of self-denial
he takes notice, that by it Christ commands us, first, to be crucified
to our own flesh and will; secondly, to spare ourselves in nothing;
thirdly, not only to deny ourselves, but thoroughly to deny ourselves;
by this little particle _thoroughly_, adding great force to his precept.
He says further, _Let him take up his cross_; this is, bearing not only
all reproaches and injurious words, but also every kind of sufferings or
death. (Hom. 55, p. 556.) On Vain Glory, he calls it the most tyrannical
of all the diseases of the soul, (Hom. 19, p. 244,) and pathetically
laments the extreme misery of a soul that forsakes God, who would
commend and reward her, to court the empty esteem of the vainest of all
creatures, and those who will the more hate and despise her as she more
eagerly hunts after applause. He compares her to a king's daughter who
should abandon a most amiable and rich prince, to run night and day
through the streets after fugitives and slaves, that hate and fly from
her as the {265} basest of prostitutes. Those she seeks to have for
witnesses and applauders, or rather she herself, act the part of
robbers, and rifle treasures laid up even in heaven in a place of
safety. The devil sees them inaccessible to his arts, therefore employs
this worm to devour them. When you bestow an alms, shut your door; let
him alone to whom you give it be witness, nor even him if possible; of
others see you they will proclaim your vain-glory, and be published by
God himself. (Hom. 71.) Speaking on alms, (Hom. 66,) he says, that the
Church of Antioch was then possessed only of the revenue of one rich and
of one poor man, yet maintained three thousand virgins and widows,
besides hospitals &c. What then is not one rich man able to do? But they
have children. The saint replies, that the best fortune they can leave
is a treasure laid up in heaven. Every one is bound at least to count
the poor among his children, and allot to them one half, a third, or at
least a tenth part. He declares (Hom. 88.) that he will never cease
preaching on the obligation, efficacy, and advantages of alms. He
asserts, (Hom. 85,) that in the church of Antioch were contained one
hundred thousand souls; besides whom as many Jews and idolaters dwelt in
that city. (Hom. in St. Ignat. t. 2, p. 591.) He applauds the constancy
and virtue of a famous actress, (Hom. 67,) who being converted to God,
would not be compelled by the threats of the governor or any punishment,
to appear again upon the stage. In Hom. 68 and 69, he gives an amiable
and edifying account of the lives of the monks of Syria: and (Hom. 47,
80, 81, 90, &c.) commends a state of voluntary poverty, and preaches on
the contempt of the world. On visiting the tombs of martyrs, to obtain
health of body and every spiritual advantage, see Hom. 37, 424. On the
sign of the cross he says, (Hom. 54, p. 551,) "Let us carry about the
cross of Christ as a crown, and let no one blush at the ensign of
salvation. By it is every thing in religion done: the cross is employed
if a person is regenerated, or fed with the mystical food, or ordained;
whatever else is to be done, this ensign of victory is ever present;
therefore we have it in our houses, paint it on our walls and windows,
make it on our foreheads, and always carry it devoutly in our hearts. We
must not content ourselves with forming it with our fingers, but must do
it with great sentiments of faith and devotion. If you thus form it on
your face, no unclean spirit will be able to stand against you when he
beholds the instrument which has given him the mortal stab. If we
tremble at the sight of the place where criminals are executed, think
what the devils must suffer when they see that weapon by which Christ
stripped them of their power, and cut off the head of their leader. Be
not ashamed of so great a good which has been bestowed on you, lest
Christ should be ashamed of you when he shall appear in glory, and this
standard be borne before him brighter than the rays of the sun; for then
the cross shall appear speaking as it were with a loud voice. This sign,
both in the time of our forefathers and in our own, has opened gates,
deadened malignant poisons, and healed wounds made by the sting or bite
of venomous creatures. If it has broken down the gates of hell, unbolted
those of paradise, destroyed the empire and weakened the powers of the
devil, what wonder if it overcomes poisons and wild beasts?" On the
virtue of the sign of the cross, see also Hom. 8, ib. and Hom. 4, de St.
Paolo, t. 2, 9. 494, et de libello repudii, t. 3, p. 204, &c. On the
Holy Eucharist, he gives frequent and admirable instructions. Speaking
of the sick, who were cured by touching the hem of Christ's garments, he
adds, (Hom. 50, p. 517,) "What grace is not in our power to receive by
touching and receiving his holy body? What if you hear not his voice;
you see him laid. He has given us himself to eat, and has set himself in
the state of a victim sacrificed before us," &c. And Hom. 82, p. 787, he
writes: "How many now say, they wish to see his shape, his garments? You
desire to see his garments, but he gives himself to you not only to be
seen, but to be touched, to be eaten, to be received within you. Then
what beam of the sun ought not that hand to be more which divides this
flesh? that mouth which is filled with this spiritual fire? that tongue
which is purpled with this adorable blood? The angels beholding it
tremble, and dare not look thereupon through awe and fear, and on
account of the rays which dart from that wherewith we are nourished,
with which we are mingled, being made one body, one flesh with Christ.
What shepherd ever fed his sheep with his own limbs? nay, many mothers
give their children to other nurses; whereas he feeds us with his own
blood," &c. It is a familiar reflection of our saint, that by the
communion we become of one flesh and of one body with Christ, to express
the close union of our souls with him in this divine sacrament. In the
same Homily, 82, (olim 83,) on St. Matthew, p. 782, t. 7, he says, the
apostles were not affrighted when they heard Christ assure them, _This
is my body_; because he had before initiated them in most wonderful
mysteries, and made them witnesses to many prodigies and miracles, and
had already instructed them in this very sacrament, at which they had
been at first much struck, and some of them scandalized. John vi.
Moreover, that they might not fear, or say, Shall we then drink his
blood and eat his flesh? he set the example in taking the cup, and
drinking his own blood the first of all. The saint charges us (ib. p.
787) not to question or contradict the words of Christ, but to captivate
our reason and understanding in obeying him, and believing his word,
which cannot deceive us, whereas our senses often lead us into mistakes.
When, therefore, he tells us, _This is_ {266} _my body_, we must believe
him, and consider the mystery with spiritual eyes; for we learn from
him, that what he gives us is something spiritual, which falls not under
our senses. See this further on the same subject, Hom. 50, (olim 51,) in
Matt. pp. 516, 517, 518. Hom. de Baptismo Christi, t. 2, pp. 374, 375.
Hom. in Laudem Martyrum, t. 2, p. 654. Hom non esse ad gratiam
concionandum, ib. pp. 658, 659. Expos. in Ps. 46, t. 5, p. 189, and in
Pd. 133, p. 382. Hom. 5, in illud: Vidi Dominum, t. 6, p. 143. Hom. de
St. Philogonio, t. 1, p. 498, besides the passages quoted in this
abstract. In the same comments on St. Matthew, t. 7, Hom. 82, p. 788, he
vehemently exhorts the faithful to approach the holy table with a
burning thirst and earnest desire to suck in the spiritual milk, as it
were, from the divine breasts. As children throw themselves into the
bosom of their nurse or mother, and eagerly suck their breast, so ought
we with far greater ardor to run to the sacred mysteries, to draw into
our hearts, as the children of God, the grace of his Holy Spirit. To be
deprived of this heavenly food ought to be to us the most sensible, nay,
our only grief, (ib p. 788.) Nothing can be more tender than his
exhortations to frequent communion; he even recommends it daily, (Hom.
de St. Philogonio, t. 1, pp. 499, 500,) provided persons lead Christian
lives, and bring suitable dispositions. But no solemnity can be a reason
for those who are under the guilt of sin ever to approach in that state.
(Ib,) No terms can be stronger than those in which he speaks in many
places of the enormity of a sacrilegious communion, which he compares to
the crime of Judas who betrayed Christ, of the Jews who crucified him,
sud of Herod who sought to murder him in his cradle, (Hom. 7, in Matt.
p. 112, &c.,) and frequently explains the dispositions requisite to
approach worthily the holy table, insisting chiefly on great purity of
soul, fervent devotion, and a vehement hunger and thirst after this
divine banquet. (Hom. 17, in Heb. t. 12, p. 169. Hom. 24, in 1 Cor t.
10, p. 218, &c.) He denounces the most dreadful threats of divine
vengeance against unfaithful ministers who admit to it notorious
sinners. (Hom. 72, in Matt. t. 7, pp. 789, 790.) "Christ," says he,
"will demand of you an account of his blood, if you give it to those who
are unworthy. If any such person presents himself, though he were
general of the army, or emperor, drive him from the holy table. The
power with which you are invested is above that of an emperor. If you
dare not refuse to admit the unworthy, inform me. I will rather suffer
my blood to be spilt than offer this sacred blood to one who is
unworthy," &c. (Ib.) In this work of St. Chrysostom upon St. Matthew, we
meet with beautiful instructions on almost every Christian virtue. Read
Hom. 38, on humility, which he styles the queen of all virtues; Hom. 58,
where he calls it the beginning of a virtuous life; and Hom. 65, where
he shows that it exalts a man above the highest dignities. On the entire
contempt of the world as a nothing, Hom. 12, 33, &c. On the happiness of
him who serves God, whom the whole world cannot hurt, Hom. 24, 56, 90.
Against avarice, Hom. 28, 74, 63. Against drunkenness, Hom. 70. On
compunction, Hom. 41, where he proves it indispensable from the
continual necessity of penance for hidden sins, and for detraction,
vain-glory, avarice, &c. We ought also to weep continually for our
dangers. Speaking on the same virtue, Hom. 6, p. 94, he, teaches that
compunction is the daughter of divine love, which consumes in the heart
all affections for temporal things, so that a man is disposed with
pleasure to part with the whole world and life itself. A soul is by it
made light, and soaring above all things visible, despises them as
nothing. He who is penetrated with this spirit of love and compunction,
frequently breaks into floods of tears; but these tears afford him
incredible sweetness and pleasure. He lives in cities as if he were in a
wilderness; so little notice does he take of the things of this life. He
is never satiated with tears which he pours forth for his own sins and
those of others. Hence the saint takes occasion to launch forth into the
commendation of the gift of holy tears, pp. 96, 97. He inveighs against
stage entertainments, Hom. 6, 7, 17, 37, &c. See especially Hom. contra
ludos et theatra, t. 6, 274.

On Hell, he says (Hom. 23, in Matt.) that the loss of God is the
greatest of all the pains which the damned endure, nay, more grievous
than a thousand hells. Many tremble at the name of hell; but he much
more at the thought of losing God, which the state of damnation implies.
(Ib.) He distinguishes in hell the loss of God, and secondly, fire and
the other pains of sense. (Hom. 47.) He shows that company abates
nothing in its torments. (Hom. 43.) Some object that to meditate on
those torments is too frightful; to whom he answers, that this is most
agreeable, because by it we learn to shun them, the hope of which
inspires joy, and so great earnestness in the practice of penance, that
austerities themselves become agreeable. (Ib.) He often mentions grace
before and after meat; and, Hom. 55, p. 561, recites that which the
monks about Antioch used before their meals, as follows: "Blessed God,
who feedest me from my youth, who givest nourishment to all flesh, fill
our hearts with joy, that being supported by thy bounty we may abound in
every good work to Christ Jesus our Lord, with whom be all honor,
praise, and glory given with the Holy Ghost, world without end. Amen.
Glory be to thee, O Lord; glory be to thee, O Holy; glory be to thee, O
King, because Thou hast given us food in joyfulness. Fill us with thy
Holy Spirit, that we may be found acceptable in thy sight, that we may
not be covered with confusion when Thou shalt render to every one
according to his works:" This whole prayer is {267} admirable, says the
saint, but especially the close, the remembrance of the last day being a
bridle and check to sensuality and concupiscence. (Ib.) The saint shows
(Horn. 86, p. 810) the malice and danger of small faults wilfully
committed, which many are apt to make slight of; but from such the most
dreadful falls take their rise. The old Latin translation of St.
Chrysostom's homilies on St. Matthew, is too full of words, and often
inaccurate. Anian, the author, seems to have been the Pelagian deacon of
that name, who assisted at the council of Diospolis in 415. The new
Latin translation is far more exact, but very unequal in elegance and
dignity of expression to the original.

The eighth tome is composed of the homilies of St. Chrysostom upon St.
John, which are eighty-eight in number, though in former Latin editions,
in imitation of Morellus, the first is called preface, and only
eighty-seven bear the title of homilies. They were preached at Antioch,
about the year 394, at break of day, long before the usual hour of the
sermon (Hom. 31.) We find here the same elevation of thought, the same
genius and lively imagination, and the same strength of reasoning which
we admire in those on St. Matthew; but the method is different. After a
short literal exposition of the text, the holy doctor frequently inserts
polemical discussions, in which he proves the Consubstantiality of the
Son against the Anomaeans. Hence his moral reflections in the end are
short: in which, nevertheless, he is always admirable, especially when
he speaks of the love which God testifies for us in the mystery of the
Incarnation. (See Hom. 27, olim 26, p. 156.) He observes that Christ
miraculously multiplied five loaves, before he gave his solemn promise
of the Eucharist, which he calls "The miracle of mysteries," and this he
did, says our saint, "That being taught by that miracle, they might not
doubt in giving credit to his words--that not only by love, but in
reality, we are mingled with his flesh." (Hom. 46, olim 45, in Joan. t.
8, p. 272.) Christ by this institution thus invites us to his heavenly
banquet, says our saint. "I feed you with my flesh, I give you myself
for your banquet. I would become your brother: for your sake, I took
upon myself flesh and blood: Again, I give you the flesh and blood, by
which I have made myself of the same nature and kindred with you,
([Greek: suggenes], congener.) This blood by being poured forth has
cleansed the whole world. This blood has purified the sanctuaries and
the Holy of Holies. If its figure had so great efficacy in the temple of
the Hebrews, and sprinkled on the doors of Egypt, the truth will have
much greater." (Ib. p. 273.) He calls the holy Eucharist "the tremendous
mysteries, the dreadful altar," [Greek: frikta ontos ta museria, frikton
ontos to fusiasterion], (ib.,) and says, "When you approach the sacred
cup, come as if you were going to drink the blood flowing from his
side." (Hom. 85, olim 84, in Joan. p. 507.)

The fifty-five homilies _On the Acts of the Apostles_, he preached at
Constantinople in the third year of his episcopal dignity, of our Lord
401, as appears from Hom. 44, p. 335, t. 9. The famous censure of
Erasmus, who judged them absolutely unworthy of our saint, (ep. ad
Warham. archiepiscopum Cantuarens,) is well known: Billius, on the
contrary, thinks them very elegant. Both judgments show how far
prepossession is capable of misleading the most learned men. That this
work is undoubtedly genuine, is demonstrated by Sir Henry Saville.
Photius justly admires an admirable eloquence, rich veins of gold
scattered through it, and the moral instructions are so noble and
beautiful, that no other genius but that of a Chrysostom could have
formed them. The style indeed, in many parts of the comments, is not
regular or correct; which might be owing to some indisposition, or to an
extraordinary hurry of troublesome affairs, to a confusion of mind, and
to alarms, the city being then in imminent danger by the revolt and
blockade of Gainas, and in daily fears of being plundered by that
barbarian. In the first homily our saint speaks against those who
deferred to receive baptism, for fear of forfeiting the grace by
relapsing into sin: which delay he shows to imply a wilful and obstinate
contempt of God and his grace, with the guilt of a base and inexcusable
sloth, like one who should desire to enrol himself in the army when the
war was over, yet expect a share in the triumph; or a wrestler who
should enter the lists when the games are closed. He adds, that in
sickness, under alarms and pains, it is scarce to be hoped that a person
will be able to dispose himself for so great a sacrament. Prudent men
make their wills while in health, imagining that at best they will
retain their senses but by halves at the approaches of death; and can we
think dying men capable of duly making so solemn an engagement with God?
He assures his flock that he is notable to express the consternation,
grief, and agony, with which he is seized whenever he hears of any one
being dead without baptism or penance, (p. 13.) In Hom. 3, p. 30, he
exaggerates the grievousness of sin in a priest, and has these
remarkable words, "I do not believe that many priests are saved; but
that far the greater number are lost: for this dignity requires a great
soul and much courage." In Hom. 7, he draws a most amiable and beautiful
portraiture of the charity which reigned in the primitive church, when
all with joy cast away their money; setting no value but on the
inestimably greater treasures which they possessed in God; when all
lived without envy, jealousy, pride, contempt of any one, and without
any cunning or ill-will; and when the cold words mine and thine were
banished from among them, pp. 58,59. A passage often quoted by those who
write on the small number of the elect occurs Hom. 24, p. 198, "How
many," says he, "do you think there are in this city {268} who will be
saved? What I am going to say is frightful indeed; yet I will speak it.
Out of so many thousands not one hundred belongs to the number of the
elect: and even of these I doubt. How much vice among the youth! What
sloth in the old! No one takes due care of the education of his
children. If we see a man truly devout in his old age, he is imitated by
nobody. I see persons behave disrespectfully and without due attention
in the church, and even when the priest is giving his blessing. Can any
insolence be found equal to this? Amidst such scandals, what hopes can
we entertain of the salvation of many? At a ball every one dances in his
rank, every thing is regulated, and done without confusion. And here in
the company of angels, and singing the praises of God with the blessed
spirits, you talk and laugh. Should we be surprised if thunder fell from
heaven to punish such impiety?" The monks then lived without the walls,
and could not be included by him: nor probably the clergy, deaconesses,
or others particularly consecrated to a devout life; as appears from his
invective. Nor does he speak this with any certitude, but from his
private apprehension by comparing the lives of the generality of the
people with the severe maxims of the gospel. This is manifest from the
proof he draws from the manners of the people, and from a like invective
in Hom. 61, olim 62, on St. Matthew, (t. 7, p. 612,) spoken at Antioch
ten years before. See also l. 1, adv. Oppugnatores Vitae Mon. n. 8, t. 1,
p. 55. Speaking on the general impiety of the world, (Hom. 10, in 1
Tim,) he says: "We have great reason to weep: scarce the least part of
the world is saved: almost all live in danger of eternal death." But he
shows that the multitude will only increase the torments of the wicked,
as if a man saw his wife and children to be burnt alive with him. St.
Chrysostom counts in Constantinople, at that time, one hundred thousand
Christians, (Hom. 11, in Acts,) and says that the poor in that city
amounted to fifty thousand, and the riches of the particulars to about
one million pounds of gold. Yet he reckons the assembly of the
Christians greater at Antioch than at Constantinople. (Hom. 1, adv.
Judaeos. p. 592, t. 1.) If the estate of one rich and that of one poor
man maintained three thousand poor at Antioch, and the like estates of
ten rich men would have supported all the poor of that city, it is
inferred that there were in Antioch only thirty thousand poor, though it
might perhaps have more inhabitants than Constantinople. See Bandurius
on the site and extent of Constantinople under the emperors Arcadius and
Honorius; and Hasius de magnitudine urbium, p. 47.

St. Chrysostom teaches that grace is conferred by God at the imposition
of hands in the ordination of priests, Hom. 14, in Acta. p. 114, also
Hom. 3, de Resurrect. t. 2, p. 436, and Hom. 21, in Acta. p. 175, that
"Oblations (or masses) are not offered in vain for the dead." It is his
pious counsel (Hom. 17, in Acta.) that when we find ourselves provoked
to anger, we form on our breast the sign of the cross; and Hom. 26, he
exhorts all Christians, even the married, and both men and women, to
rise every midnight to pray in their own houses, and to awake little
children at that hour that they may say a short prayer in bed. He says
that saints and martyrs are commemorated in the holy mysteries, because
this is doing them great honor, (Hom. 21, in Acta. p. 276,) and by the
communion with them in their virtues, the rest of the faithful departed
reap much benefit. (Hom. 51, in 1 Corinth. t. 10, p. 393.)

For a specimen of the zeal and charity with which this great preacher
instructed his flock, two or three passages are here inserted. Hom. 3,
in Acta. p. 31, t. 9. "I wish," says he, "I could set before your eyes
the tender charity and love which I bear you: after this no one could
take it amiss or be angry if I ever seem to use too harsh words in
correcting disorders. Nothing is dearer to me than you; not even life or
light. I desire a thousand times over to lose my sight, if by this means
I could convert your souls to God; so much more sweet is your salvation
to me. If it happens that any of you fall into sin, you are present even
in my sleep: through grief I am like persons struck with a palsy, or
deprived of their senses. For what hope or comfort can I have left, if
you advance not in virtue? And if you do well, what can afflict me? I
seem to feel myself taking wing when I hear any good of you. _Make my
joy complete_. Phil. ii. 2. Your progress is my only desire. You are to
me all, father and mother, and brothers and children." Hom. 44, in Act.
p. 335, having appealed to his closet and secret retreats to bear
witness how many tears he shed without intermission for them, he says,
"What shall I do? I am quite spent daily crying out to you: Forsake the
stage. Yet many laugh at our words: Refrain from oaths and avarice, and
no one listens to us. For your sakes I have almost abandoned the care of
my own soul and salvation; and while I weep for you, I bewail also my
own spiritual miseries, to which, through solicitude for you, I am not
sufficiently attentive: so true it is that you are all things to me. If
I see you advance in virtue, through joy I feel not my own ills; and if
I perceive you make no progress, here again through grief I forget my
own miseries. Though I am sinking under them, on your account, I am
filled with joy: and whatever subject of joy I have in myself, I am
overwhelmed with grief if all is not well with you. For what comfort,
what life, what hope can a pastor have, if his flock be perishing? How
will he stand before God? What will he say? Though he should be innocent
of the blood of them all, still he will be pierced with bitter sorrow
which nothing will be able to assuage. For though parents were no way in
fault, they would suffer the most {269} cruel anguish for the ruin or
loss of their children. Whether I shall be demanded an account of year
souls or no, this will not remove my grief. I am not anxious that you
may attain to happiness by my labors, but that you be saved at any rate,
or by any means. You know not the impetuous tyranny of spiritual
travails, and how he who spiritually brings forth children to God
desires a thousand times over to be hewn to pieces rather than to see
one of his children fall or perish. Though we could say with assurance,
we have done all that lay in us, and are innocent of his blood, this
will not be enough to comfort us. Could my heart be laid open and
exposed to your view, you would see that you are every one there, and
much dilated, women, children, and men. So great is the power of charity
that it makes a soul wider than the heavens. St. Paul bore all Corinth
within his breast. 2 Cor. vii. 2. I can make you no reproaches for any
indifference towards me on your side. I am sensible of the love which
you reciprocally bear me. But what will be the advantage either of your
love for me or of mine for you, if the duties you owe to God are
neglected? It is only an occasion of rendering my grief more heavy. You
have never been wanting in any thing towards me. Were it possible, you
would have given me your very eyes: and on our side we were desirous to
give you with the gospel also our lives. Our love is reciprocal. But
this is not the point. We must in the first place love Christ. This
obligation both you and I have great need to study: not that we entirely
neglect it; but the pains we take are not adequate to this great end."

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