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This article examines the wide range of anonymous and pseudonymous naming practices to be found in West African newspapers between the 1880s and 1930s, and asks about the shape of a West African history of anonymity as compared with recent histories of anonymity in European literature. The article also discusses the ways in which colonial West African uses of anonymity and pseudonyms challenge postcolonial scholarship on agency, subjectivity, resistance, authenticity and identity.

The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints

A >> Alban Butler >> The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints




Felix, with the blessing of his pastor, repaired secretly to his own
lodgings, and there kept himself concealed, praying for the church
without ceasing till peace was restored to it by the death of Decius, in
the year 251. {148} He no sooner appeared again in public, but his zeal
so exasperated the pagans that they came armed to apprehend him; but
though they met him, they knew him not; they even asked him where Felix
was, a question he did not think proper to give a direct answer to. The
persecutors going a little further, perceived their mistake, and
returned; but the saint in the mean time had stepped a little out of the
way, and crept through a hole in a ruinous old wall, which was instantly
closed up by spiders' webs. His enemies never imagining any thing could
have lately passed where they saw so close a spider's web, after a
fruitless search elsewhere, returned in the evening without their prey.
Felix finding among the ruins, between two houses, an old well half dry,
hid himself in it for six months; and received during that time
wherewithal to subsist by means of a devout Christian woman. Peace being
restored to the church by the death of the emperor, the saint quitted
his retreat, and was received in the city as an angel sent from heaven.

Soon after, St. Maximus' dying, all were unanimous for electing Felix
bishop; but he persuaded the people to make choice of Quintus, because
the older priest of the two, having been ordained seven days before him.
Quintus, when bishop, always respected St. Felix as his father, and
followed his advice in every particular. The remainder of the saint's
estate having been confiscated in the persecution, he was advised to lay
claim to it, as others had done, who thereby recovered what had been
taken from them. His answer was, that in poverty he should be the more
secure of possessing Christ.[4] He could not even be prevailed upon to
accept what the rich offered him. He rented a little spot of barren
land, not exceeding three acres, which he tilled with his own hands, in
such manner as to receive his subsistence from it, and to have something
left for alms. Whatever was bestowed on him, he gave it immediately to
the poor. If he had two coats, he was sure to give them the better; and
often exchanged his only one for the rags of some beggar. He died in a
good old age, on the fourteenth of January, on which day the
Martyrology, under the name of St. Jerom, and all others of later date
mention him. Five churches have been built at, or near the place where
he was first interred, which was without the precinct of the city of
Nola. His precious remains are at present kept in the cathedral; but
certain portions are at Rome, Benevento, and some other places. Pope
Damasus, in a pilgrimage which he made from Rome to Nola, to the shrine
of this saint, professes, in a short poem which he composed in
acknowledgment, that he was miraculously cured of a distemper through
his intercession.

St. Paulinus, a Roman senator in the fifth age, forty-six years after
the death of St. Damasus, came from Spain to Nola, desirous of being
porter in the church of St. Felix. He testifies that crowds of pilgrims
came from Rome, from all other parts of Italy, and more distant
countries, to visit his sepulchre on his festival: he adds, that all
brought some present or other to his church, as wax-candles to burn at
his tomb, precious ointments, costly ornaments, and such like; but that
for his part, he offered to him the homage of his tongue, and himself,
though an unworthy victim. [5] He everywhere expresses his devotion to
this saint in the warmest and strongest terms, and believes that all the
graces he received from heaven were conferred on him through the
intercession of St. Felix. To him he addressed himself in all his
necessities; by his prayers he begged grace in this life, and glory
after {149} death.[6] He describes at large the holy pictures of the
whole history of the Old Testament, which were hung up in the church of
St. Felix, and which inflamed all who beheld them, and were as so many
books that instructed the ignorant. We may read with pleasure the pious
sentiments the sight of each gave St. Paulinus.[7] He relates a great
number of miracles that were wrought at his tomb, as of persons cured of
various distempers and delivered from dangers by his intercession, to
several of which he was an eye-witness. He testifies that he himself had
frequently experienced the most sensible effects of his patronage, and,
by having recourse to him, had been speedily succored.[8] St. Austin
also has given an account of many miracles performed at his shrine.[9]
It was not formerly allowed to bury any corpse within the walls of
cities. The church of St. Felix, out of the walls of Nola, not being
comprised under this prohibition, many devout Christians sought to be
buried in it, that their faith and devotion might recommend them after
death to the patronage of this holy confessor, upon which head St.
Paulinus consulted St. Austin. The holy doctor answered him by his book,
_On the care for the dead_: in which he shows that the faith and
devotion of such persons would be available to them after death, as the
suffrages and good works of the living in behalf of the faithful
departed are profitable to the latter. See the poems of St. Paulinus on
his life, confirmed by other authentic ancient records, quoted by
Tillemont, t. 4, p. 226, and Ruinart, Acta Sincera, p. 256; Muratori,
Anecd. Lat.

Footnotes:
1. S. Paulin. Carm. 19, 20. Seu Natali, 4.
2. De Cor. hymn 5.
3. Paulin. Carm. 19.
4. _Dives egebo Deo; nam Christum pauper habebo_. Paulin. Carm. 2.
Natali S. Felicia 5.
5. ________________ _Ego munere linguae,
Nudus opum, famulor, de me mea debita solvens
Meque ipsum pro me, vilis licet hostia pendam._ Natal. 6
6. Nat. 1, 2, &c.
7. Nat. 9, 10.
8. St. Paulin. Ep. 28 & 36. Carm. 13, 18, 21, 22, 23, 29, &c.
9. St. August. Ep. 78, olim 137, lib. De cura pro moritus, c. 16.

SS. ISAIAS, SABBAS,

AND thirty-eight other holy solitaries on mount Sinai, martyred by a
troop of Arabians in 273; likewise Paul, the abbot; Moses, who by his
preaching and miracles had converted to the faith the Ishmaelites of
Pharan; Psaes, a prodigy of austerity, and many other hermits in the
desert of Raithe, two days' journey from Sinai, near the Red Sea, were
massacred the same year by the Blemmyans, a savage infidel nation of
Ethiopia. All these anchorets lived on dates, or other fruits, never
tasted bread, worked at making baskets in cells at a considerable
distance from each other, and met on Saturdays, in the evening, in one
common church, where they watched and said the night office, and on the
Sunday received together the holy eucharist. They were remarkable for
their assiduity in praying and fasting. See their acts by Ammonius, an
eye-witness, published by F. Combefis; also Bulteau, Hist. Mon.
d'Orient, l. 2, c. 1, p. 209.

Also, many holy anchorets on mount Sinai, whose lives were faithful
copies of Christian perfection, and who met on Sundays to receive the
holy eucharist, were martyred by a band of Saracens in the fifth
century. A boy of fourteen years of age led among them an ascetic life
of great perfection. The Saracens threatened to kill him, if he did not
discover where the ancient monks had concealed themselves. He answered,
that death did not terrify him, and that he could not ransom his life by
a sin in betraying his fathers. They bade him put off his clothes:
"After you have killed me," said the modest youth, "take my clothes and
welcome: but as I never saw my body naked, have so much compassion and
regard for my shamefacedness, as to let me die covered." The barbarians,
enraged at this answer, fell on him with all their weapons at once, and
the pious youth died by as many martyrdoms as he had executioners. St.
Nilus, who had been formerly governor {150} of Constantinople, has left
us an account of this massacre in seven narratives: at that time he led
an eremitical life in those deserts, and had placed his son Theodulus in
this holy company. He was carried away captive, but redeemed after many
dangers. See S. Nili, Septem Narrationes; also, Bulteau, Hist. Mon.
d'Orient, l. 2, c. 2, p. 220.

S. BARBASCEMINUS,

AND SIXTEEN OF HIS CLERGY, MM.

HE succeeded his brother St. Sadoth in the metropolitical see of
Seleucia and Ctesiphon, in 342, which he held six years. Being accused
as an enemy to the Persian religion, and as one who spoke against the
Persian divinities, _Fire_ and _Water_, he was apprehended, with sixteen
of his clergy, by the orders of king Sapor II. The king seeing his
threats lost upon him, confined him almost a year in a loathsome
dungeon, in which he was often tormented by the Magians with scourges,
clubs, and tortures, besides the continual annoyance of stench, filth,
hunger, and thirst. After eleven months the prisoners were again brought
before the king. Their bodies were disfigured by their torments, and
their faces discolored by a blackish hue which they had contracted.
Sapor held out to the bishop a golden cup as a present, in which were a
thousand sineas of gold, a coin still in use among the Persians. Besides
this he promised him a government, and other great offices, if he would
suffer himself to be initiated in the rites of the sun. The saint
replied that he could not answer the reproaches of Christ at the last
day, if he should prefer gold, or a whole empire, to his holy law; and
that he was ready to die. He received his crown by the sword, with his
companions, on the 14th of January, in the year 346, and of the reign of
king Sapor II. the thirty-seventh, at Ledan, in the province of the
Huzites. St. Maruthas, the author of his acts, adds, that Sapor,
resolving to extinguish utterly the Christian name in his empire,
published a new terrible edict, whereby he commanded every one to be
tortured and put to death who should refuse to adore the sun, to worship
fire and water, and to feed on the blood of living creatures.[1] The see
of Seleucia remained vacant twenty years, and innumerable martyrs
watered all the provinces of Persia with their blood. St. Maruthas was
not able to recover their names, but has left us a copious panegyric on
then heroic deeds, accompanied with the warmest sentiments of devotion,
and desires to be speedily united with them in glory. See Acta Mart.
Orient. per Steph. Assemani, t. 1, p. 3.

Footnotes:
1. The Christians observed for several ages, especially in the East,
the apostolic temporary precept of abstaining from blood. Acts, xv.
20. See Nat. Alexander Hist. Saec. 1, dissert 9.

{151}


JANUARY XV.

ST. PAUL, THE FIRST HERMIT.

From his life, compiled by St. Jerom, in 365. Pope Gelasius I., in his
learned Roman council, in 494, commends this authentic history. St. Paul
is also mentioned by Cassian, St. Fulgentius, Sulpitius Severus,
Sidonius, Paulinus, in the life of St. Ambrose, &c. St. Jerom received
this account from two disciples of St. Antony, Amathas and Macariux. St.
Athanasius says, that he only wrote what he had heard from St. Antony's
own mouth, or from his disciples; and desires others to add what they
know concerning his actions. On the various readings and MS. copies of
this life, see the disquisition of P. Jem{} de Prato, an oratorian of
Verona, in his new edition of the works of Sulpitius Severus, t. l, app.
2, p. 403. The Greek history of St. Paul the hermit, which Bollandus
imagines St. Jerom to have followed, is evidently posterior; and borrows
from him, as Jos. Assemani shows. Comm. In Calend. Univ. t. 6, p. 92.
See Gudij Epistolae, p. 278.

A.D. 342.

ELIAS and St. John the Baptist sanctified the deserts, and Jesus Christ
himself was a model of the eremitical state during his forty days' fast
in the wilderness; neither is it to be questioned but the Holy Ghost
conducted the saint of this day, though young, into the desert, and was
to him an instructor there; but it is no less certain, that an entire
solitude and total sequestration of one's self from human society, is
one of those extraordinary ways by which God leads souls to himself, and
is more worthy of our admiration, than calculated for imitation and
practice: it is a state which ought only to be embraced by such as are
already well experienced in the practices of virtue and contemplation,
and who can resist sloth and other temptations, lest, instead of being a
help, it prove a snare and stumbling-block in their way to heaven.

This saint was a native of the Lower Thebais, in Egypt, and had lost
both his parents when he was but fifteen years of age: nevertheless, he
was a great proficient in the Greek and Egyptian learning, was mild and
modest, and feared God from his earliest youth. The bloody persecution
of Decius disturbed the peace of the church in 250; and what was most
dreadful, Satan, by his ministers, sought not so much to kill the
bodies, as by subtle artifices and tedious tortures to destroy the souls
of men. Two instances are sufficient to show his malice in this respect:
A soldier of Christ, who had already triumphed over the racks and
tortures, had his whole body rubbed over with honey, and was then laid
on his back in the sun, with his hands tied behind him, that the flies
and wasps, which are quite intolerable in hot countries, might torment
and gall him with their stings. Another was bound with silk cords on a
bed of down, in a delightful garden, where a lascivious woman was
employed to entice him to sin; the martyr, sensible of his danger, bit
off part of his tongue and spit it in her face, that the horror of such
an action might put her to flight, and the smart occasioned by it be a
means to prevent, in his own heart, any manner of consent to carnal
pleasure. During these times of danger, Paul kept himself concealed in
the house of another; but finding that a brother-in-law was inclined to
betray him, that he might enjoy his estate, he fled into the deserts.
There he found many spacious caverns in a rock, which were said to have
been the retreat of money-coiners in the days of Cleopatra, queen of
Egypt. He chose for his dwelling a cat; in this place, near which were a
palm-tree[1] and a clear spring: the former by its leaves furnished him
with raiment, and by its fruit with food; and the latter supplied him
with water for his drink.

{152}

Paul was twenty-two years old when he entered the desert. His first
intention was to enjoy the liberty of serving God till the persecution
should cease; but relishing the sweets of heavenly contemplation and
penance, and learning the spiritual advantages of holy solitude, he
resolved to return no more among men, or concern himself in the least
with human affairs, and what passed in the world: it was enough for him
to know that there was a world, and to pray that it might be improved in
goodness. The saint lived on the fruit of his tree till he was
forty-three years of age, and from that time till his death, like Elias,
he was miraculously fed with bread brought him every day by a raven. His
method of life, and what he did in this place during ninety years, is
unknown to us: but God was pleased to make his servant known a little
before his death.

The great St. Antony, who was then ninety years of age, was tempted to
vanity, as if no one had served God so long in the wilderness as he had
done, imagining himself also to be the first example of a life so
recluse from human conversation: but the contrary was discovered to him
in a dream the night following, and the saint was at the same time
commanded, by Almighty God, to set out forthwith in quest of a perfect
servant of his, concealed in the more remote parts of those deserts. The
holy old man set out the next morning in search of the unknown hermit.
St. Jerom relates from his authors, that he met a centaur, or creature
not with the nature and properties, but with something of the mixed
shape of man and horse,[2] and that this monster, or phantom of the
devil, (St. Jerom pretends not to determine which it was,) upon his
making the sign of the cross, fled away, after having pointed out the
way to the saint. Our author adds, that St. Antony soon after met a
satyr,[3] who gave him to understand that he was an inhabitant of those
deserts, and one of that sort whom the deluded Gentiles adored for gods.
St. Antony, after two days and a night spent in the search, discovered
the saint's abode by a light that was in it, which he made up to. Having
long begged admittance at the door of his cell, St. Paul at last opened
it with a smile: they embraced, called each other by their names, which
they knew by divine revelation. St. Paul then inquired whether idolatry
still reigned in the world. While they were discoursing together, a
raven flew towards them, and dropped a loaf of bread before them. Upon
which St. Paul said, "Our good God has sent us a dinner. In this manner
have I received half a loaf every day these sixty years past; now you
are come to see me, Christ has doubled his provision for his servants."
Having given thanks to God they both sat down by the fountain; but a
little contest arose between them who should break the bread; St. Antony
alleged St. Paul's greater age, and St. Paul pleaded that Antony was the
stranger: both agreed at last to take up their parts together. Having
refreshed themselves at the spring, they spent the night in prayer. The
next morning St. Paul told his guest that the time of his death
approached, and that he was sent to bury him; adding, "Go and fetch the
cloak given you by St. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in which I
desire you to wrap my body." This he might say with the intent of being
left alone in prayer, while he expected to be called out of this world;
as also that he might testify his veneration for St. Athanasius, and his
high regard for the faith and communion of the Catholic church, on
account of which that holy bishop was then a great sufferer. St. Antony
was surprised to hear him mention the cloak, which he could not have
known but by divine revelation. Whatever was his motive for desiring to
be buried {153} in it, St. Antony acquiesced to what was asked of him:
so, after mutual embraces, he hastened to his monastery to comply with
St. Paul's request. He told his monks that he, a sinner, falsely bore
the name of a servant of God, but that he had seen Elias and John the
Baptist in the wilderness, even Paul in Paradise. Having taken the
cloak, he returned with it in all haste, fearing lest the holy hermit
might be dead, as it happened. While on his road, he saw his happy soul
carried up to heaven, attended by choirs of angels, prophets, and
apostles. St. Antony, though he rejoiced on St. Paul's account, could
not help lamenting on his own, for having lost a treasure so lately
discovered. As soon as his sorrow would permit, he arose, pursued his
journey, and came to the cave. Going in, he found the body kneeling, and
the hands stretched out. Full of joy, and supposing him yet alive, he
knelt down to pray with him, but by his silence soon perceived he was
dead. Having paid his last respects to the holy corpse, he carried it
out of the cave. While he stood perplexed how to dig a grave, two lions
came up quietly, and, as it were, mourning; and tearing up the ground,
made a hole large enough for the reception of a human body. St. Antony
then buried the corpse, singing hymns and psalms, according to what was
usual and appointed by the church on that occasion. After this he
returned home praising God, and related to his monks what he had seen
and done. He always kept as a great treasure, and wore himself on great
festivals, the garment of St. Paul, of palm-tree leaves patched
together. St. Paul died in the year of our Lord 342, the hundred and
thirteenth year of his age, and the ninetieth of his solitude, and is
usually called the _first hermit_, to distinguish him from others of
that name. The body of this saint is said to have been conveyed to
Constantinople, by the emperor Michael Comnenus, in the twelfth century,
and from thence to Venice in 1240.[4] Lewis I., king of Hungary,
procured it from that republic, and deposited it at Buda, where a
congregation of hermits under his name, which still subsists in Hungary,
Poland, and Austria, was instituted by blessed Eusebius of Strigonium, a
nobleman, who, having distributed his whole estate among the poor,
retired into the forests; and being followed by others, built the
monastery of Pisilia, under the rule of the regular canons of St.
Austin. He died in that house, January the 20th, 1270.

St. Paul, the hermit, is commemorated in several ancient western
Martyrologies on the 10th of January, but in the Roman on the 15th, on
which he is honored in the anthologium of the Greeks.

* * * * *

An eminent contemplative draws the following portraiture of this great
model of an eremitical life:[5] St. Paul, the hermit, not being called
by God to the external duties of an active life, remained alone,
conversing only with God, in a vast wilderness, for the space of near a
hundred years, ignorant of all that passed in the world, both the
progress of sciences, the establishment of religion, and the revolutions
of states and empires; indifferent even as to those things without which
he could not live, as the air which he breathed, the water he drank, and
the miraculous bread with which he supported life. What did he do? say
the inhabitants of this busy world, who think they could not live
without being in a perpetual hurry of restless projects; what was his
employment all this while? Alas! ought we not rather to put this
question to them; what are you doing while you are not taken up in doing
the will of God, which occupies the heavens and the earth in all their
motions? Do you call that doing nothing which is the great end God {154}
proposed to himself in giving us a being, that is, to be employed in
contemplating, adoring, and praising him? Is it to be idle and useless
in the world to be entirely taken up in that which is the eternal
occupation of God himself, and of the blessed inhabitants of heaven?
What employment is better, more just, more sublime, or more advantageous
than this, when done in suitable circumstances? To be employed in any
thing else, how great or noble soever it may appear in the eyes of men,
unless it be referred to God, and be the accomplishment of his holy
will, who in all our actions demands our heart more than our hand, what
is it, but to turn ourselves away from our end, to lose our time, and
voluntarily to return again to that state of nothing out of which we
were formed, or rather into a far worse state?

Footnotes:
1. Pliny recounts thirty-nine different sorts of palm-trees, and says
that the best grow in Egypt, which are ever green, have leaves thick
enough to make ropes and a fruit which serves in some places to make
bread.
2. Pliny, l. 7, c. 3, and others, assure us that such monsters have
been seen. Consult the note of Rosweide.
3. The heathens might feign their gods of the woods, from certain
monsters sometimes seen. Plutarch, in his life of Sylla, says, that
a satyr was brought to that general at Athens; and St. Jerom tells
us, that one was shown alive at Alexandria, and after its death was
salted and embalmed, and sent to Antioch that Constantine the Great
might see it.
4. See the whole history of this translation, published from an
original MS. by F. Gamans, a Jesuit, inserted by Bollandus in his
collection.
5. F. Ambrose de Lombez, Capucin, Tr. de la Paix Interieure, (Paris,
1758,) p. 372.

ST. MAURUS, ABBOT

AMONG the several noblemen who placed their sons under the care of St.
Benedict, to be brought up in piety and learning, Equitius, one of that
rank, left with him his son Maurus, then but twelve years old, in 522.
The youth surpassed all his fellow monks in the discharge of monastic
duties, and when he was grown up, St. Benedict made him his coadjutor in
the government of Sublaco. Maurus, by his singleness of heart and
profound humility, was a model of perfection to all the brethren, and
was favored by God with the gift of miracles. St. Placidus, a fellow
monk, the son of the senator Tertullus, going one day to fetch water,
fell into the lake, and was carried the distance of a bow-shot from the
bank. St. Benedict saw this in spirit in his cell, and bid Maurus run
and draw him out. Maurus obeyed, walked upon the waters without
perceiving it, and dragged out Placidus by the hair, without sinking in
the least himself. He attributed the miracle to the prayers of St.
Benedict; but the holy abbot, to the obedience of the disciple. Soon
after that holy patriarch had retired to Cassino, he called St. Maurus
thither, in the year 528. Thus far St. Gregory, Dial. l. 2, c. 3, 4, 6.

St. Maurus coming to France in 543, founded, by the liberality of king
Theodebert, the great abbey of Glanfeuil, now called St. Maur-sur-Loire,
which he governed several years. In 581 he resigned the abbacy to
Bertulf, and passed the remainder of his life in close solitude, in the
uninterrupted contemplation of heavenly things, in order to prepare
himself for his passage to eternity. After two years thus employed, he
fell sick of a fever, with a pain in his side: he received the
sacraments of the church, lying on sackcloth before the altar of St.
Martin, and in the same posture expired on the 15th of January, in the
year 584. He was buried on the right side of the altar in the same
church,[1] and on a roll of parchment laid in his tomb was inscribed
this epitaph: "Maurus, a monk and deacon, who came into France in the
days of king Theodebert, and died the eighteenth day before the month of
February."[2] St. Maurus is named in the ancient French litany composed
by Alcuin, and in the Martyrologies of Florus, Usuard, and others. {155}
For fear of the Normans, in the ninth century, his body was translated
to several places; lastly, in 868, to St. Peter's des Fusses, then a
Benedictin abbey, near Paris,[3] where it was received with great
solemnity by AEneas, bishop of Paris. A history of this translation,
written by Eudo, at that time abbot of St. Peter's des Fusses, is still
extant. This abbey des Fusses was founded by Blidegisilus, deacon of the
church of Paris, in the time of king Clovis II. and of Audebert, bishop
of Paris: St. Babolen was the first abbot. This monastery was reformed
by St. Mayeul, abbot of Cluni, in 988: in 1533 it was secularized by
Clement VII. at the request of Francis I., and the deanery united to the
bishopric of Paris; but the church and village have for several ages
borne the name of St. Maur. The abbey of Glanfeuil, now called St.
Maur-sur-Loire, was subjected to this des Fosses from the reign of
Charles the Bald to the year 1096, in which Urban II., at the
solicitation of the count of Anjou, re-established its primitive
independence. Our ancestors had a particular veneration for St. Maurus,
under the Norman kings; and the noble family of Seymour (from the French
_Saint Maur_) borrow from him its name, as Camden observes in his
_Remains_. The church of St. Peter's des Fusses, two leagues from Paris,
now called St. Maurus's, was secularized, and made a collegiate, in
1533; and the canons removed to St. Louis, formerly called St. Thomas of
Canterbury's, at the Louvre in Paris, in 1750. The same year the relics
of St. Maurus were translated thence to the abbey of St.
Germain-des-Prez, where they are preserved in a rich shrine.[4] An arm
of this saint was with great devotion translated to mount Cassino, in
the eleventh century,[5] and by its touch a demoniac was afterwards
delivered, as is related by Desiderius at that time abbot of mount
Cassino,[6] who was afterwards pope, under the name of Victor III. See
Mabill. Annal. Bened. t. 1, l. 3 and 4; and the genuine history of the
translation of the body of St. Maurus to the monastery des Fosses, by
Endo, at that time abbot of this house. The life of St. Maurus, and
history of his translation, under the pretended name of Faustus, is
demonstrated by Cointe and others to be a notorious forgery, with
several instruments belonging to the same.[7]

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