Various - "The Atlantic Monthly, Volume V, Number 29, March, 1860"

John Beatty - "The Citizen Soldier"

Henry Beam Piper - "Oomphel in the Sky"

Walter Lippmann - "A Preface to Politics"

Editorial
This article examines the wide range of anonymous and pseudonymous naming practices to be found in West African newspapers between the 1880s and 1930s, and asks about the shape of a West African history of anonymity as compared with recent histories of anonymity in European literature. The article also discusses the ways in which colonial West African uses of anonymity and pseudonyms challenge postcolonial scholarship on agency, subjectivity, resistance, authenticity and identity.

The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints

A >> Alban Butler >> The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints




* * * * *

St. Hilary observes, that singleness of heart is the most necessary
condition of faith and true virtue, "For Christ teaches that only those
who become again as it were little children, and by the simplicity of
that age cut off the inordinate affections of vice, can enter the
kingdom of heaven. These follow and obey their father, love their
mother; are strangers to covetousness, ill-will, hatred, arrogance, and
lying, and are inclined easily to believe what they hear. This
disposition of affections opens the way to heaven. We must therefore
return to the simplicity of little children, in which we shall bear some
resemblance to our Lord's humility."[29] This, in the language of the
Holy Ghost, is called the foolishness of the cross of Christ,[30] in
which consists true wisdom. That prudence of the flesh and worldly
wisdom, which is the mother of self-sufficiency, pride, avarice, and
vicious curiosity, the source of infidelity, and the declared enemy of
the spirit of Christ, is banished by this holy simplicity; and in its
stead are obtained true wisdom, which can only be found in a heart freed
from the clouds of the passions, perfect prudence, which, as St. Thomas
shows, is the fruit of the assemblage of all virtues, and a divine light
which grace fails not to infuse. This simplicity, which is the mother of
Christian discretion, is a stranger to all artifice, design, and
dissimulation, to all views or desires of self-interest, and to all
undue respect or consideration of creatures. All its desires and views
are reduced to this alone, of attaining to the perfect union with God.
Unfeignedly to desire this one thing, to belong to God alone, to arrive
at his pure love, and to do his will in all things, is that simplicity
or singleness of heart of which we speak, and which banishes all
inordinate affections of the heart, from which arise the most dangerous
errors of the understanding. This is the essential disposition of every
one who sincerely desires to live by the spirit of Christ. That divine
spouse of souls, loves to communicate himself to such.[31] His
conversation (or as another version has it, his secret) is with the
simple.[32] His delight is in those who walk with simplicity.[33] This
is the characteristic of all the saints:[34] whence the Holy Ghost cries
out, Approach him not with a double heart.[35] That worldly wisdom is
not subject to the law of God, neither can it be.[36] Its intoxication
blinds men, and shuts their eyes to the light of divine revelation. They
arrogate to themselves the exclusive privilege of learning and clear
understanding: but the skepticism, the pitiful inconsistencies, and
monstrous extravagances, which characterize their writings and
discourses, make us blush to see so strong an alliance of ignorance and
presumption; and lament that the human mind should be capable of falling
into a state of so deplorable degeneracy. Among the fathers of the
church we admire men the most learned of their age, the most penetrating
and most judicious, and at the same time {147} the most holy and
sincere; who, being endowed with true simplicity of heart, discovered in
the mysteries of the cross the secrets of infinite wisdom, which they
made their study, and the rule of their actions.

Footnotes:
1. L. 2, adv. Julian, c. 8.
2. L. 2, adv. Rufin. p. 415.
3. In Isa. c. 60.
4. S. Hieron. in Catal.
5. L. 1, de Trin. p. 1-10.
6. Exod. iii. 14.
7. The contrary is certainly a mistake in Dr. Cave; for St. Jerom,
writing against Jovinian, says, in {} p. 175, that though the church
was sometimes obliged to make choice of married men for the
priesthood, because virgins, or unmarried, could not always be
found, they notwithstanding lived ever after continent. _Certe
confiteris, non posse esse episcopum qui in episcopatu filios
faciat: alioqui si deprehensus fuerit non quasi vir tenebitur, sed
quasi adulter condemnabitur, ib_. And in his book against
Vigilantius, p. 28, he observes, that in the churches of the East,
in Egypt, and in the apostolic see of Rome, those only were made
clergymen, who were virgins, or single; or if they were married,
they ceased to live as husbands. _Aut virgines clericos accipiunt,
aut contintes; aut si uxores habuerint, mariti esse desinunt_, p.
281.
8. S. Hilar. in Ps. 53, n. 8, in Ps. 67, p. 15, and Contant, Armon. in
S. Hilar. in Psalmos, p. 165.
9. Ep. ad Laetam.
10. On the interpretation of certain obscure passages of the works of
St. Hilary, see Dom Coutant, in an excellent preface to his edition
of this father's works; also Witasse de Incarn. t. 2, &c.
11. Ep. 49, ad Paulinum, t. 4, p. 567.
12. Lib. 1, de Trinit.
13. Doubtless his love of prayer, and the assiduous application of his
mind to that holy exercise, moved him to make the Psalms a main
object of his sacred studies and meditation. His comments are
elegant; though in them he dwells much on the literal sense, he
neglects not the mystical and allegorical, every thing in these
divine oracles being prophetic, as he takes notice, (in Ps. 142, n.
1.) Often he finds the immediate literal sense clear; in other
passages, he shows Christ and his Church to be pointed out. The true
sense of the holy scriptures he teaches, only to be opened to us by
the spirit of assiduous prayer, (in Ps. 125, n. 2, &c.) The fatal
and opposite errors, which the overweening spirit and study of a
false criticism have produced in every age, justify this general
remark of the fathers, that though the succor of reasonable
criticism ought by no means to be neglected, a spirit of prayer is
the only key which can open to us the sacred treasures of the divine
truths, by the light which it obtains of the Holy Ghost, and the
spirit of simplicity, piety, and humility, which it infuses. In this
disposition, the holy doctors of the Church discovered in the divine
oracles that spirit of perfect virtue, which they imbibed and
improved from their assiduous meditation. St. Hilary remarks, that
the first lesson we are to study in them is, that of humility, in
which "Christ has taught, that all the titles and prizes of our
faith are comprised:" In humilitate docuit omnia fidei nomina et
praemia contineri, (in Ps. 118, l. 20, n. 1, p. 358.) Whence the
royal prophet entreats God, to consider nothing in him but his
lowliness of heart, (v. 153, ibid.) This holy father sticks not to
say, humility is the greatest work of our faith, our best sacrifice
to God, (in Ps. 1311, n. 1. p. 442;) but true humility is
accompanied with an invincible courage, and a firmness and constancy
in virtue, which no fear of worldly powers is ever able to shake,
(in Ps. xiv. p. 66.) St. Hilary laments, that even several pastors
of the church thought it a part of piety to flatter princes. But
true religion teaches us (Matt. x. 28) only to fear things which are
justly to be feared, that is, to fear God, to fear sin, or what can
hurt our souls: for what threatens only our bodies, this is to be
despised, when the interest of God and our souls is concerned. We
indeed study out of charity to give offence to no one, (1 Cor. x.
32, 33;) but desire only to please men for God, not by contemning
him, (in Ps. 52, p. 89, 90.) Prayer is the great Christian duty,
which this holy doctor was particularly solicitous to inculcate,
teaching that it consists in the cry of the heart; not in the lips,
as David cried to God in his whole heart, Ps. cxviii. v. 145, (in
Ps. cxviii. l. 19, p. 352.) We are to pour forth our souls before
God, with earnestness, and with abundance of tears, (in Ps. 41, apud
Marten. t. 9, p. 71.) Amidst the dangers and evils of this life, our
only comfort ought to be in God, in the assured hope of his
promises, and in prayer. (Ib.) That prayer is despised by God, which
is slothful and lukewarm, accompanied with distrust, distracted with
unprofitable thoughts, weakened by worldly anxiety and desires of
earthly goods, or fruitless, for want of the support of good works,
(in Ps. liv. p. 104.) All our actions and discourses ought to be
begin by prayer, and the divine praise, (in Ps. lxiv. p. 162.) The
day among Christians is always begun by prayer, and ended by hymns
to God, (ib. n. 12, p. 169.) By this public homage of the church,
and of every faithful soul in it, God is particularly honored, and
he delights in it. (St. Jerom. in eund. Ps.) St. Hilary takes
notice, that the night is of all others the most proper time for
prayer; as the example of Christ, David, and other saints,
demonstrates, (in Ps. cxviii. l. 8, p. 292.) He observes, that it
cannot be doubted, but among all the acts of prayer, that of the
divine praise is in general the most noble and most excellent: and
that it is for his infinite goodness and mercy, in the first place,
that we are bound to praise him, (in Ps. cxxxiv p. 469.) Next to
this, he places the duty of thanksgiving. (Ib.) To be silent in the
divine praises, he calls the greatest of all punishments; and takes
notice, that every one makes what he loves the chiefest object of
his joy: as we see in the drunkard, the covetous, or the ambitious
man: thus the prophet makes the heavenly Jerusalem the beginning of
his joy; always bearing in mind, that this is his eternal country,
in which he will be associated with the troops of angels, be
received into the kingdom of God, and put in possession of its
glory; he therefore finds all other things insipid, and knows no
other comfort or joy but in this hope, bearing always in mind, that
the glorious inhabitants of that kingdom never cease singing the
divine praises, saying, Holy, holy, holy, &c. (in Ps. cxxxvi. n. 11,
p. 494.) In another place he tells us, that the prophet bears not
the delays of his body, (moras corporis sui non patitur,) sighing
with the apostle to be dissolved and clothed with immortality: but
earnestly praying, that he may find mercy, and be delivered from
falling into the lake of torments, (in Ps. cxlii. n. 8, 9, p. 549.)
During this exile to meditate on eternity, and on the divine law and
judgments, ought to be our assiduous occupation, (in Ps. cxlii. n.
6, p. 548,) especially in time of tribulations and temptations, (in
Ps. cxviii. l. 12, n. 10, p. 313.) The world is to be shunned, at
least in spirit; first, because it is filled on every side with
snares and dangers, secondly, that our souls may more freely soar
above it, always thinking on God; hence, he says, our souls must be,
as it were, spiritual birds of heaven, always raised high on the
wing; and he cries out, "Thou art instructed in heavenly science:
what hast thou to do with anxious worldly cares? Thou hast renounced
the world; what hast thou to do with its superfluous concerns? Why
dost thou complain if thou art taken in a snare, by wandering in a
strange land, who oughtest to restrain thy affections from straying
from home? Say rather, Who will give me wings as of a dove, and I
will fly, and will be at rest?" Ps. liv. 7, (in Ps. cxviii. l. 14,
p. 328.) To build a house for God, that is, to prepare a dwelling
for him in our souls, we must begin by banishing sin, and all
earthly affections, (in Ps. xxxi. p. 73;) for Christ, who is wisdom,
sanctity, and truth, cannot establish his reign in the breast of a
fool, hypocrite, or sinner, (in Ps. xli. p. 60, ap. Marten. t. 9.)
It is easy for God, by penance, to repair his work, howsoever it may
have been defaced by vice, as a potter can restore or improve the
form of a vessel, while the clay is yet moist, (in Ps. ii. p. 47:)
but he often inculcates that repentance, or the confession of sin,
is a solemn profession of sinning no more, (in Ps. cxxxvii. p. 498,
in Ps. li. and cxviii. p. 263, &c.) Every thing that is inordinate
in the affections must be cut off. "The prophet gave himself entire
to God, according to the tenor of his consecration of himself.
Whatever lives in him, lives to God. His whole heart, his whole soul
is fixed on God alone, and occupied in him, and he never loses sight
of him. In all his works and thoughts God is before his eyes." Totum
quod vivit, Deo vivit. (Ps. cxviii. l. 14, n. 16, p. 327.) Upon
these words, _I am thy servant_, Ps. cxviii. v. 125, he observes,
that every Christian frequently repeats this, but most deny by their
actions what they profess in words, "It is the privilege of the
prophet to call himself the servant of God in every affection of his
heart, in every circumstance and action of his life," &c. (in Ps.
cxviii. l. 17, p. 339.) He teaches that the angels, patriarchs, and
prophets are as it were mountains protecting the church, (in Ps.
cxxiv. n. 6, p. 404;) and that holy angels attend and succor the
faithful, (in Ps. cxxxvii. p. 499;) assist them in time of combat
against the devils, (in Ps. lxv. p. 178, and in Ps. cxxxiv. p. 475;)
carry up their prayers to their heavenly Father with an eager zeal;
and looking upon this ministry as an honor, (in Matt. c. 18, p.
699.) That the church of Christ is one, out of which, as out of the
ark of Noah, no one man be saved, (in Ps. cxlvi., xiv., lxiv.,
cxxviii., and cxvvii. in Matt. c. 4, and 7 De Trinit. l. 7, p. 917.)
He mentions fast days of precept, the violation of which renders a
Christian a slave of the devil, a vessel of death, and fuel of hell,
(in Ps. cxviii. l. 18, p. 349.) This crime he joins with pride and
fornication, as sins at the sight of which every good Christian
ought to pine away with grief and zeal, according to the words of
Ps. cxviii. v. 139. Saint Hilary seems to have explained the whole
Psalter, though only part is recovered by the editors of his works.
To the comments published by Dom Coutant at Paris, in 1693, the
marquis Scipio Maffei added some others on several other Psalms, in
his edition at Verona, in 1730. Dom Martenne, in 1733, published
others on certain other Psalms, which he had discovered in a
manuscript at Anchin, in his Amplissima Monumentorum Collectio, t.
9, p. 55. These comments on the Psalms, St. Hilary compiled after
his exile, as appears from certain allusions to his books on the
Trinity, and from his frequent reflections against the Arians.
Nothing of this is found in his commentary on St. Matthew, which Dom
Coutant shows to have been the first of his works in the order of
time, composed soon after he was raised to the episcopal dignity. He
here and there borrows short passages from Origen, but sticks closer
to the literal sense, though he sometimes has recourse to the
allegorical, for the sake of some moral instruction. St. Hilary is
one of the first who published any Latin comments in the holy
scriptures. Rheticius, bishop of Autun, and St. Victorinus of
Passaw, though the latter wrote in Greek, had opened the way in the
West in the beginning of the same century. St. Hilary, in this
commentary on St. Matthew, excellently inculcates in few words the
maxims of Christian virtue, especially fraternal charity and
meekness, by which our souls pass to divine charity and peace, (in
Matt. c. 4, v. 18, 19, p. 626:) and the conditions of fasting and
prayer, though for the exposition of our Lord's prayer, he refers to
that of St. Cyprian; adding that Tertullian has left us also a very
suitable work upon it; but that his subsequent error has weakened
the authority of his former writings which may deserve approbation,
(in c. 5, p. 630.) The road to heaven he shows to be exceeding
narrow, because even among Christians very few sincerely despise the
world, and labor strenuously to subdue their flesh and all their
passions, and to shun all the incentives of vice, (in c. 6, p. 368.)
St. Peter he calls the Prince of the College of the Apostles, and
the Porter of Heaven, and extols the authority of the keys conferred
upon him, (in Matt. c. 7, p. 642, in c. 16, p. 690. Also 1. 6. de
Trin. p. 891, 903, 9114.) He proves that Christ, in his bloody
sweat, grieved more for the danger of his disciples and other
causes, than for his own death; because he had in his last supper
already consecrated his blood to be poured forth for the remission
of sin. Numquid pati ipse nolebat. Atquin superius fundendum in
remissionem peccatorum corporis sui sanguinem consecraverat, (S.
Hilar. in Matt. c. 31, p. 743.) His twelve books on the Trinity he
compiled during his banishment in Phrygia, between the years 356 and
359, as is clear from his own express testimony, and that of St.
Jerom. In the first book of this immortal monument of his admirable
genius and piety, he beautifully shows that man's felicity is only
to be found in God; and that the light of reason suffices to
demonstrate this, which he illustrates by an account of his own
conversion to the faith. After this he takes notice, that we can
learn only by God's revelation, his nature, or what he is, he being
the competent witness of himself, who it known only by himself, (n.
18, p. 777.) In the second book he explains the Trinity, which we
profess in the form of baptism, and says, that faith alone in
believing, and sincerity and devotion in adoring, this mystery ought
to suffice without disputing or prying, and laments, that by the
blasphemies of the Sabellians and Arians, who perverted the true
sense of the scriptures, he was compelled to dispute of things
ineffable and incomprehensible which only necessity can excuse, (n.
25.) He then proves the eternal generation of the Son, the
procession of the Holy Ghost, and their consubstantiality in one
nature, (l. 2 and 3.) He checks their presumption in pretending to
fathom the Trinity, by showing that they cannot understand many
miracles of Christ or corporeal things, which yet they confess to be
most certain, (l. 3, n. 19, 20, 24.) He detects and confutes the
subtilties of the Arians, in their various confessions of faith, (l.
4, 5, 6,) also of the Sabellians and Photinians, (l. 7;) and
demonstrates the divinity of Christ, from the confession of St.
Peter, &c., (l. 6,) and of the very Jews, who were more sincere than
the Arians, acknowledging that Christ called himself the natural Son
of God. (John x. 31, &c. l. 7, n. 2, 3, p. 931.) The natural unity
of the Father and Son, he demonstrates from that text, "I and my
Father are one," and others, (l. 8,) and observes that both from the
testimony of Christ in the holy scriptures, and from the faith of
the church, we believe without doubting the Eucharist to be the true
body and blood of Christ, (l. 8, n. 14, p. 955, 956.) He answers
several objections from scripture, (l. 9,) and shows there was
something in Christ (viz. the divine person, &c.) which did not
suffer in his passion, (l. 10.) Other objections he confutes, (l.
11,) and in his last book defends the eternity of the Son of God.
Between August in 358, and May in 359, St. Hilary, after he had been
three years in banishment, and was still in Asia, published his book
On Synods, to inform the Catholics in Gaul, Britain, and Germany,
what judgment they ought to form of several synods, held lately in
the East, chiefly by the Arians and Semi-Arians: a work of great use
in the history of those times, and in which St. Hilary's prudence,
humility, modesty, greatness of soul, constancy, invincible
meekness, and love of peace, shine forth. In this work he mollifies
certain expressions of the Semi-Arians in their councils, because
writing before the council of Rimini, he endeavored to gain them by
this method, whereas he at other times severely condemned the same;
as did also St. Athanasius, in his book on the same subject, and
under the same title, which he composed after the council of Rimini;
and expressly to show the variations of those heretics. (See
Coutant, vit. S. Hilar. p. c. ci. et praef. in S. Hilar. de Synodis,
p. 1147.) Fifteen fragments of St. Hilary's history of the councils
of Rimini and Seleucia furnish important materials for the history
of Arianism, particularly of the council of Rimini. In his first
book to the emperor Constantius, which he wrote in 355 or 356, he
conjures that prince with tears to restore peace to the church, and
leave the decision of ecclesiastical causes to its pastors. The
excellent request which he presented to Constantius at
Constantinople, in 360, is called his second book to that prince.
The third book ought to be styled, with Coutant, Against
Constantius: for in it St. Hilary directs it to the Catholics, (n. 2
and 12) though he often uses an apostrophe to Constantius. The saint
wrote it five years after the council of Milan, in 355, as he
testifies; consequently in 360, after that prince had rejected his
second request; but it was only published after the death of that
emperor, in the following year, as is clear from St. Jerom: He says
Constantius, by artifices and flattery, was a more dangerous
persecutor than Nero and Decius: he tells him, "Thou receivest the
priests with a kiss, as Christ was betrayed by one: thou bowest thy
head to receive their blessing, that thou mayest trample on their
faith: thou entertainest them at thy table, as Judas went from table
to betray his master." Fleury (l. 14, n. 26) bids us observe, in
these words, with what respect emperors then treated bishops. St.
Hilary in his elegant book against Auxentius, gives the catholics an
account of his conferences with that heretic at Milan in 364.
14. In Ps. 64.
15. In Ps. 1, p. 19, 20.
16. Lib. 7, de Trinit. n. 4, p. 917.
17. Lib. 6, n. 37, 38, p. 904.
18. In Ps. 131, n. 4, p. 447, in cap. 16, Matt. n. 7, p. 690.
19. Lib. 11, de Trinit. n. 3.
20. Lib. 3, adv. Constant. n. 8, p. 1243, Ed. Ben.
21. This letter is commended by the most judicious critics, Baronius,
Tillemont, Fleury, and Coutant, a monk of the congregation of St.
Maur, in his edition of the works of St. Hilary, and others. The
style is not pompous, but adapted to the capacity of a girl of
thirteen years of age.
22. Facta est fides temporum, potius quam evangellorum, l. 2, ad Const.
p. 1227. Tot nunc fides existere, quot voluntates, ib. Annuas atque
menstruas de Deo fides decernimus, decretis poenitimusm poenitentes
defendimus, defensos anathematizamus. ib. p. 1228.
23. Cointe Annal. Fr. ad ann. 538, n. 41, 42, 43.
24. L. de Gl. Conf. c. 2.
25. Alcuin, Hom. de S. Willibrodo.
26. Baillet, Vie de S. Hilaire.
27. Ap. Mab. anal. t. 4, p. 644.
28. Aimion. l. 4, c. 17 & 33. Coutant, Vit. S. Hilar. p. cxxiv, cxxv,
cxxix.
29. S. Hilar. in Matt. c. 18, v. i. p. 698.
30. 1 Cor. i. 17, & iii. 18. S. Hilar. l. 3, de Trin. n. 24, 25, pp.
822, 823.
31. 1 Par. xxix. 17.
32. Prov. iii. 32.
33. Prov. xi. 20.
34. 2 Cor. i. 12.
35. Eccles. i. 39.
36. Rom. viii. 7.


ST. FELIX OF NOLA, P. AND C.

IT is observed by the judicious Tillemont, with regard to the life of
this saint, that we might doubt of its wonderful circumstances, were
they not supported by the authority of a Paulinus; but that great
miracles ought to be received with the greater veneration, when
authorized by incontestable vouchers.

St. Felix was a native of Nola, a Roman colony in Campania, fourteen
miles from Naples, where his father Hermias, who was by birth a Syrian,
and had served in the army, had purchased an estate and settled himself.
He had two sons, Felix and Hermias, to whom at his death he left his
patrimony. The younger sought preferment in the world among the lovers
of vanity, by following the profession of arms, which at that time was
the surest road to riches and honors. Felix, to become in effect what
his name in Latin imported, that is, _happy_, resolved to follow no
other standard than that of the king of kings, Jesus Christ. For this
purpose, despising all earthly things, lest the love of them might
entangle his soul, he distributed the better part of his substance among
the poor, and was ordained Reader, Exorcist, and, lastly, Priest, by
Maximus, the holy bishop of Nola; who, charmed with his sanctity and
prudence, made him his principal support in these times of trouble, and
designed him for his successor.[1]

In the year 250, the emperor Decius raised a bloody persecution against
the church. Maximus, seeing himself principally aimed at, retired into
the deserts, not through the fear of death, which he desired, but rather
not to tempt God by seeking it, and to preserve himself for the service
of his flock. The persecutors not finding him, seized on Felix, who, in
his absence, was very vigilant in the discharge of all his pastoral
duties. The governor caused him to be scourged; then loaded with bolts
and chains about his neck, hands, and legs, and cast into a dungeon, in
which, as St. Prudentius informs us,[2] the floor was spread all over
with potsherds and pieces of broken glass, so that there was no place
free from them, on which the saint could either stand or lie. One night
an angel appearing in great glory, filled the prison with a bright
light, and bade St. Felix go and assist his bishop, who was in great
distress. The confessor, seeing his chains fall off, and the doors open,
followed his guide, and was conducted by heaven to the place where
Maximus lay, almost perished with hunger and cold, speechless, and
without sense: for, through anxiety for his flock, and the hardships of
his solitary retreat, he had suffered more than a martyrdom. Felix, not
being able to bring him to himself, had recourse to prayer; and
discovering thereupon a bunch of grapes within reach, he squeezed some
of the juice into his mouth, which had the desired effect. The good
bishop no sooner beheld his friend Felix, but he embraced him, and
begged to be conveyed back to his church. The saint, taking him on his
shoulders, carried him to his episcopal house in the city, before day
appeared, where a pious ancient woman took care of him.[3]

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