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This article examines the wide range of anonymous and pseudonymous naming practices to be found in West African newspapers between the 1880s and 1930s, and asks about the shape of a West African history of anonymity as compared with recent histories of anonymity in European literature. The article also discusses the ways in which colonial West African uses of anonymity and pseudonyms challenge postcolonial scholarship on agency, subjectivity, resistance, authenticity and identity.

The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints

A >> Alban Butler >> The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints




ST. GENEVIEVE, OR GENOVEFA, V.

CHIEF PATRONESS OF THE CITY OF PARIS.

HER father's name was Severus, and her mother's Gerontia: she was born
about the year 422, at Nanterre, a small village four miles from Paris,
near the famous modern stations, or Calvary, adorned with excellent
sculptures, representing our Lord's Passion, on Mount Valerien. When St.
Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, went with St. Lupus into Britain to oppose
the Pelagian heresy, he lay at Nanterre in his way. The inhabitants
flocked about them to receive their blessing, and St. Germanus made them
an exhortation, during which he took particular notice of Genevieve,
though only seven years of age. After his discourse he inquired for her
parents, and addressing himself to them, foretold their daughter's
future sanctity, and said that she would perfectly accomplish the
resolution she had taken of serving God, and that others would imitate
her example. He then asked Genevieve whether it was not her desire to
serve God in a state of perpetual virginity, and to bear no other title
than that of a spouse of Jesus Christ. The virgin answered, that this
was what she had long desired, and begged that by his blessing she might
be from that moment consecrated to God. The holy prelate went to the
church of the place, followed by the people, and, during long singing of
psalms and prayers, says Constantius,[1]--that is, during the recital of
None and Vespers,[2] as the author of the life of St. Genevieve
expresses it,[3] he held his hand upon the virgin's head. After he had
supped, he dismissed her, giving a strict charge to her parents to bring
her again to him very early the next morning. The father complied with
the commission, and St. Germanus asked Genevieve whether she remembered
the promise she had made to God. She said she did, and declared she
would, by the divine assistance, faithfully perform it. The bishop gave
her a brass medal, on which a cross was engraved, to wear always about
her neck, to put her in mind of the consecration she had made of herself
to God; and at the same time, he charged her never to wear bracelets, or
necklaces of pearls, gold, or silver, or any other ornaments of vanity.
All this she most religiously observed, and considering herself as the
spouse of Christ, gave herself up to the most fervent practices of
devotion and penance. From the words of St. Germanus, in his exhortation
to St. Genevieve never to wear jewels, Baillet and some others infer,
that she must have been a person of quality and fortune; but the ancient
Breviary and constant tradition of the place assure us, that her father
was a poor shepherd. Adrian, Valois, and Baluze, observe, that her most
ancient life ought not to be esteemed of irrefragable authority, and
that the words of St. Germanus are {083} not perhaps related with a
scrupulous fidelity.[4] The author of her life tells us, that the holy
virgin begging one day with great importunity that she might go to the
church, her mother struck her on the face, but in punishment lost her
sight, which she only recovered, two months after, by washing her eyes
twice or thrice with water which her daughter fetched from the well, and
upon which she had made the sign of the cross. Hence the people look
upon the well at Nanterre as having been blessed by the saint. About
fifteen years of age, she was presented to the bishop of Paris to
receive the religious veil at his hands, together with two other persons
of the same sex. Though she was the youngest of the three, the bishop
placed her the first, saying, that heaven had already sanctified her; by
which he seems to have alluded to the promise she had already made, in
the presence of SS. Germanus and Lupus, of consecrating herself to God.
From that time she frequently ate only twice in the week, on Sundays and
Thursdays. Her food was barley bread with a few beans. At the age of
fifty, by the command of certain bishops, she mitigated this austerity,
so far as to allow herself a moderate use of fish and milk. Her prayer
was almost continual, and generally attended with a large flow of tears.
After the death of her parents she left Nanterre, and settled with her
god-mother at Paris; but sometimes undertook journeys upon motives of
charity, and illustrated the cities of Meaux, Leon, Tours, Orleans, and
all other places wherever she went, with miracles and remarkable
predictions. God permitted her to meet with some severe trials; for at a
certain time all persons indiscriminately seemed to be in a combination
against her, and persecuted her under the opprobrious names of
visionary, hypocrite, and the like imputations, all tending to asperse
her innocency. The arrival of St. Germanus at Paris, probably on his
second journey to Britain, for some time silenced her calumniators; but
it was not long ere the storm broke out anew. Her enemies were fully
determined to drown her, when the archdeacon of Auxerre arrived with
_Eulogies_, or blessed bread, sent her by St. Germanus, as a testimony
of his particular esteem for her virtues, and a token of communion. This
seems to have happened while St. Germanus was absent in Italy in 449, a
little before his death. This circumstance, so providentially opportune,
converted the prejudices of her calumniators into a singular veneration
for her during the remainder of her life. The Franks or French had then
possessed themselves of the better part of Gaul; and Childeric, their
king, took Paris.[5] During the long blockade of that city, the citizens
being extremely distressed by famine, St. Genevieve, as the author of
her life relates, went out at the head of a company who were sent to
procure provisions, and brought back from Arcis-sur-Aube and Troyes
several boats laden with corn. Nevertheless, Childeric, when he had made
himself master of Paris, though always a pagan, respected St. Genevieve,
and, upon her intercession, spared the lives of many prisoners, and did
several other acts of clemency and bounty. Our saint, out of her
singular devotion to St. Dionysius and his companions, the apostles of
the country, frequently visited their tombs at the borough of
Catulliacum, which many think the borough since called Saint Denys's.
She also excited the zeal of many pious persons to build there a church
in {084} honor of St. Dionysius, which King Dagobert I. afterwards
rebuilt with a stately monastery in 629.[6] Saint Genevieve likewise
performed several pilgrimages, in company with other holy virgins, to
the shrine of St. Martin at Tours. These journeys of devotion she
sanctified by the exercise of holy recollection and austere penance.
King Clovis, who embraced the faith in 496, listened often with
deference to the advice of St. Genevieve, and granted liberty to several
captives at her request. Upon the report of the march of Attila with his
army of Huns, the Parisians were preparing to abandon their city, but
St. Genevieve persuaded them, in imitation of Judith and Hester, to
endeavor to avert the scourge, by fasting, watching, and prayer. Many
devout persons of her sex passed many days with her in prayer in the
baptistery; from whence the particular devotion to St. Genevieve, which
is practised at St. John-le-rond, the ancient public baptistery of the
church of Paris, seems to have taken rise. She assured the people of the
protection of heaven, and their deliverance; and though she was long
treated by many as an impostor, the event verified the prediction, that
barbarian suddenly changing the course of his march, probably by
directing it towards Orleans. Our author attributes to St. Genevieve the
first design of the magnificent church which Clovis began to build in
honor of SS. Peter and Paul, by the pious counsel of his wife Saint
Clotilda, by whom it was finished several years after; for he only laid
the foundation a little before his death, which happened in 511.[7] St.
Genevieve died about the same year, probably five weeks after that
prince, on the 3d of January, 512, being eighty-nine years old. Some
think she died before King Clovis. Prudentius, bishop of Paris, had been
buried about the year 409, on the spot where this church was built.
Clovis was interred in it: his remains were afterwards removed into the
middle of the choir, where they are covered with a modern monument of
white marble, with an inscription. St. Clotilda was buried near the
steps of the high altar in 545; but her name having been enrolled among
the saints, her relics were enshrined, and are placed behind the high
altar. Those of St. Alda, the companion of St. Genevieve, and of St.
Ceraunus, bishop of Paris, are placed in silver shrines on the altar of
S. Clotilda. The tombs of St. Genevieve and King Clovis were near
together. Immediately after the saint was buried, the people raised an
oratory of wood over her tomb, as her historian assures us, and this was
soon changed into the stately church built under the invocation of SS.
Peter and Paul. From this circumstance, we gather that her tomb was
situated in a part of this church, which was only built after her death.
Her tomb, though empty, is still shown in the subterraneous church, or
vault, betwixt those of Prudentius, and St. Ceraunus, bishop of Paris.
But her relics were enclosed, by St. {085} Eligius, in a costly shrine,
adorned with gold and silver, which he made with his own hands about the
year 630, as St. Owen relates in his life. In 845 these relics, for fear
of the Normans, were removed to Atis, and thence to Dravel, where the
abbot of the canons kept a tooth for his own church. In 850 they were
carried to Marisy, near Ferte-Milon, and five years after brought back
to Paris. The author of the original life of St. Genevieve concludes it
by a description of the Basilick which Clovis and St. Clotilda erected,
adorned with a triple portico, in which were painted the histories of
the patriarchs, prophets, martyrs, and confessors. This church was
several times plundered, and at length burnt, by the Normans. When it
was rebuilt, soon after the year 856, the relics of St. Genevieve were
brought back. The miracles which were performed there from the time of
her burial, rendered this church famous over all France, so that at
length it began to be known only by her name. The city of Paris has
frequently received sensible proofs of the divine protection, through
her intercession. The most famous instance is that called the miracle of
_Des Ardens_, or of the burning fever. In 1129, in the reign of Louis
VI., a pestilential fever, with a violent inward heat, and pains in the
bowels, swept off, in a short time, fourteen thousand persons; nor could
the art of physicians afford any relief. Stephen, bishop of Paris, with
the clergy and people, implored the divine mercy, by fasting and
supplications. Yet the distemper began not to abate till the shrine of
St. Genevieve was carried in a solemn procession to the cathedral.
During that ceremony many sick persons were cured by touching the
shrine; and of all that then lay ill of that distemper in the whole
town, only three died, the rest recovered, and no others fell ill. Pope
Innocent II. coming to Paris the year following, after having passed a
careful scrutiny on the miracle, ordered an annual festival in
commemoration of it on the 26th of November, which is still kept at
Paris. A chapel near the cathedral, called anciently St. Genevieve's the
Little, erected near the house in which she died, afterward, from this
miracle, (though it was wrought not at this chapel, but chiefly at the
cathedral, as Le Beuf demonstrates,) was called St. Genevieve des
Ardens, which was demolished in 1747, to make place for the Foundling
Hospital.[8] Both before and since that time, it is the custom, in
extraordinary public calamities, to carry the shrine of St. Genevieve,
accompanied with those of St. Marcel, St. Aurea, St. Lucan, martyr, St.
Landry, St. Merry, St. Paxentius, St. Magloire, and others, in a solemn
procession to the cathedral; on which occasion the regular canons of St.
Genevieve walk barefoot, and at the right hand of the chapter of the
cathedral, and the abbot walks on the right hand of the archbishop. The
present rich shrine of St. Genevieve was made by the abbot, and the
relics enclosed in it in 1242. It is said that one hundred and
ninety-three marks of silver, and eight of gold, were used in making it;
and it is almost covered with precious stones, most of which are the
presents of several kings and queens. The crown or cluster of diamonds
which glitters on the top, was given by Queen Mary of Medicis. The
shrine is placed behind the choir, upon a fine piece of architecture,
supported by four high pillars, two of marble, and two of jaspis.[9] See
the Ancient Life of St. Genevieve, written by an anonymous author,
eighteen years after her death, of which the best edition is given by F.
Charpentier, a Genevevan regular canon, in octavo, in 1697. It is
interpolated in several editions. Bollandus has added another more
modern life; see also Tillemont, t. 16, p. 621, and notes, ib. p. 802.
Likewise, Gallia Christiana Nova, t. 7, p. 700.

Footnotes:
1. Constant. in vit. S. Germani. Altiss. l. 1, c. 20.
2. _Nonam atque duodecim_. It deserves the attention of clergymen, that
though anciently the canonical hours were punctually observed in the
divine office, SS. Germanus and Lupus deferred None beyond the hour,
that they might recite it in the church, rather than on the road.
The word _duodecima_ used for Vespers, is a clear demonstration that
the canonical hour of Vespers was not five, but six o'clock,--which,
about the _equinox_, was the twelfth hour of the natural day: which
is also proved from the name of the Ferial hymn at Vespers, _Jam ter
quaternis_, &c. See Card. Bona, de div. Psalmodia, &c.
3. Apud Bolland.
4. See Piganiol, Descrip. de Paris, t. 8, v. Nanterre.
5. Paris was called by the Romans the castle of the Parisians, being by
its situation one of the strongest fortresses in Gaul; for at that
time it was confined to the island of the river Seine, now called
the Isle _du Palais_, and the _City_: though the limits of the city
are now extended somewhat beyond that island, it is the smallest
part of the town. This isle was only accessible over two wooden
bridges, each of which was defended by a castle, which were
afterwards called the _Great_ and _Little_ Chatelet. (See Lobineau.
Hist. de la Ville de Paris, t. l, l. 1.) The greatest part of the
neighboring country was covered with thick woods. The Roman
governors built a palace without the island, (now in Rue de
l'Harpe,) which Julian, the Apostate, while he commanded in Gaul,
exceedingly embellished, furnished with water by a curious aqueduct,
and, for the security of his own person, contrived a subterraneous
passage from the palace to the castle or Great Chatelet; of all
which works certain vestiges are to be seen at this day.
6. Some think that Catualliacum was rather Montmartre than St. Denys's,
and that the church built there in the time of St. Genevieve stood
near the bottom of the mountain, because it is said in her life to
have been at the place where St. Dionysius suffered martyrdom; and
it is added, that she often visited the place, attended by many
virgins, watched there every Saturday night in prayer, and that one
night when she was going thither with her companions in the rain,
and through very dirty roads, the lamp that was carried before her
was extinguished, but lighted again upon her taking it into her own
hands: all which circumstances seem not to agree to a place two
leagues distant, like St. Denys's.
7. The author of the life of St. Bathildes testifies, that Clovis built
this church for the use of monks; which Mabillon confirms by other
proofs, (Op. Posth. t. 2, p. 356.) He doubts not but it continued in
their hands, till being burnt by the Normans in 856 (as appears from
Stephen of Tournay, ep. 146,) it was soon after rebuilt, and given
to secular canons. These, in punishment of a sedition, were expelled
by the authority of Eugenius III., and Suger, abbot of St. Denys's,
and prime minister to Lewis VII., or the Young, in 1148, who
introduced into this church twelve regular canons of the order of
St. Austin, chosen out of St. Victor's abbey, which had been erected
about forty years before, and was then most famous for many great
men, the austerity of its rule, and the piety and learning which
flourished in it. Cardinal Francis Rochefoucault, the history of
whose most edifying life and great actions will be a model of all
pastoral virtues to all ages to come, having established an
excellent reformation in the abbey of St. Vincent, at regular
canons, at Senlis, when he was bishop of that see, being nominated
abbot of St. Genevieve's by Lewis XIII., called from St. Vincent's
F. Charles Faure, and twelve others, in 1624, and by their means
introduced the same reformation in this monastery, which was
confirmed in 1634, when F. Faure was chosen abbot coadjutor to the
cardinal. He died in odor of sanctity in 667, the good cardinal
having passed to a better life in 1645.
8. _De Miraculo Ardentium_. See Anonym. ap. Bolland. et Brev. Paris. ad
26 Nov.
9. See Piganiol, Descr. de Paris, t. 5, p. 238, et Le Fevre Calendrier
Hist. de l'Eglise de Paris, Nov 26, et Jan. 3. Gallia Christian.
Nova, t. 7, p. 700. Le Beuf l. 2, p. 95, et l. 1, p. 387.

{086}


JANUARY IV.

ST. TITUS, DISCIPLE OF ST. PAUL, B.

See St. Paul, ep. ad Tit. and 1 and 2 ad Cor.; also, Tillemont T. 2,
Calmet, T. 8, Le Quien Oriens Christianus, T. 2, p. 256. F. Farlat
Illyrici sacri. T. 1, p. 354 ad 392.

ST. TITUS was born a Gentile, and seems to have been converted by St.
Paul, who calls him his son in Christ. His extraordinary virtue and
merit gained him the particular esteem and affection of this apostle;
for we find him employed as his secretary and interpreter; and he styles
him his brother, and copartner in his labors; commends exceedingly his
solicitude and zeal for the salvation of his brethren,[1] and in the
tenderest manner expresses the comfort and support he found in him,[2]
insomuch, that, on a certain occasion, he declared that he found no rest
in his spirit, because at Troas he had not met Titus.[3] In the year 51,
he accompanied him to the council that was held at Jerusalem, on the
subject of the Mosaic rites. Though the apostle had consented to the
circumcision of Timothy, in order to render his ministry acceptable
among the Jews, he would not allow the same in Titus, apprehensive of
giving thereby a sanction to the error of certain false brethren, who
contended that the ceremonial institutes of the Mosaic law were not
abolished by the law of grace. Towards the close of the year 56, St.
Paul sent Titus from Ephesus to Corinth, with full commission to remedy
the several subjects of scandal, as also to allay the dissensions in
that church. He was there received with great testimonies of respect,
and was perfectly satisfied with regard to the penance and submission of
the offenders; but could not be prevailed upon to accept from them any
present, not even so much as his own maintenance. His love for that
church was very considerable, and at their request he interceded with
St. Paul for the pardon of the incestuous man. He was sent the same year
by the apostle a second time to Corinth, to prepare the alms that church
designed for the poor Christians at Jerusalem. All these particulars we
learn from St. Paul's two epistles to the Corinthians.

St. Paul, after his first imprisonment, returning from Rome into the
east, made some stay in the island of Crete, to preach there the faith
of Jesus Christ: but the necessities of other churches requiring his
presence elsewhere, he ordained his beloved disciple Titus bishop of
that island, and left him to finish the work he had successfully begun.
"We may form a judgment," says St. Chrysostom,[4] "from the importance
of the charge, how great the esteem of St. Paul was for his disciple."
But finding the loss of such a companion too material, at his return
into Europe the year after, the apostle ordered him to meet him at
Nicopolis in Epirus, where he intended to pass the winter, and to set
out for that place as soon as either Tychichus, or Arthemas, whom he had
sent to supply his place during his absence, should arrive in Crete. St.
Paul sent these instructions to Titus, in the canonical epistle
addressed to him, when on his Journey to Nicopolis, in autumn, in the
year 64. He ordered him to establish Priests,[5] that is, {087} bishops,
as St. Jerom, St. Chrysostom, and Theodoret expound it, in all the
cities of the island. He sums up the principal qualities necessary for a
bishop, and gives him particular advice touching his own conduct to his
flock, exhorting him to hold to strictness of discipline, but seasoned
with lenity. This epistle contains the rule of episcopal life, and as
such, we may regard it as faithfully copied in the life of this
disciple. In the year 65, we find him sent by St. Paul to preach in
Dalmatia.[6] He again returned to Crete, and settled the faith in that
and the adjacent little island. All that can be affirmed further of him
is, that he finished a laborious and holy life by a happy death in
Crete, in a very advanced old age, some affirm in the ninety-fourth year
of his age. The body of St. Titus was kept with great veneration in the
cathedral of Gortyna, the ruins of which city, the ancient metropolis of
the island, situated six miles from mount Ida, are still very
remarkable. This city being destroyed by the Saracens in 823, these
relics could never since be discovered: only the head of our saint was
conveyed safe to Venice, and is venerated in the Ducal basilica of St.
Mark (See Creta Sacra, Auctore Flaminio Cornelio, Senatore Veneto.
Venetiis, anno 1755, de S. Tito, T. 1, p. 189, 195.) St. Titus has been
looked upon in Crete as the first archbishop of Gortyna, which
metropolitical see is fixed at Candia, since this new metropolis was
built by the Saracens. The cathedral of the city of Candia, which now
gives its name to the whole island, bears his name. The Turks leave this
church in the hands of the Christians. The city of Candia was built in
the ninth century, seventeen miles from the ancient Gortyn or Gortyna.
Under the metropolitan of Candia, there are at present in this island
eleven suffragan bishops of the Greek communion.

When St. Paul assumed Titus to the ministry, this disciple was already a
saint, and the apostle found in him all the conditions which he charged
him so severely to require in those whom he should honor with the
pastoral charge. It is an illusion of false zeal, and a temptation of
the enemy, for young novices to begin to teach before they have learned
themselves how to practise. Young birds, which leave their nests before
they are able to fly, are sure to perish. Trees which push forth their
buds before the season, yield no fruit, the flowers being either nipped
by the frost, or destroyed by the sun. So those who give themselves up
to the exterior employments of the ministry, before they are thoroughly
grounded in the spirit of the gospel, strain their tender interior
virtue, and produce only unclean or tainted fruit. All who undertake the
pastoral charge, besides a thorough acquaintance with the divine law,
and the maxims and spirit of the gospel, and experience, discretion, and
a knowledge of the heart of man, or his passions, must have seriously
endeavored to die to themselves by the habitual practice of self-denial,
and a rooted humility; and must have been so well exercised in holy
contemplation, as to retain that habitual disposition of soul amidst
exterior employments, and in them to be able still to say, _I sleep, and
my heart watches_;[7] that is, I sleep to all earthly things, and am
awake only to my heavenly friend and spouse, being absorbed in the
thoughts and desires of the most ardent love.

Footnotes:
1. 2 Cor. viii. 16, xii. 18.
2. 2 Cor. vii. 6, 7.
3. 2 Cor. xi. 13.
4. Hom. i. in Tit.
5. [Greek: Presbuterous], Tit. i. 5. See the learned Dr. Hammond's
dissertation on this subject. From the words of St. Paul, Tit. i. De
Marca de Concord. l. 1, c. 3, n. 2. and Schelstrate, T. 2, Ant.
Eccl. Diss. 4, c. 2 prove archbishops to be of apostolic
institution.
6. St. Titus certainly preached in Dalmatia, 2 Tim. iv. 10, &c. He is
honored in that country as its principal apostle, on which see the
learned Jesuit F. Fariat, Illyrici Sacr. T. i. p. 355. Saint
Domnius, who is honored among the saints on the 7th of May, is said
to have been ordained by him first bishop of Salona, then the
metropolis, which see was afterwards translated to Spalatro.
7. Cant. v.

{088}

ST. GREGORY, B.

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